Elephants are mammals of the ancestors Elephantidae and the bigger absolute acreage animals. Three brand are currently recognised: the African backcountry elephant, the African backwoods elephant, and the Asian elephant. Elephantidae is the alone actual ancestors of the adjustment Proboscidea; abolished assembly accommodate the mastodons. The ancestors Elephantidae additionally contains several now-extinct groups, including the mammoths and straight-tusked elephants. African elephants acquire beyond aerial and biconcave backs, admitting Asian elephants acquire abate ears, and arched or akin backs. Characteristic actualization of all elephants accommodate a affiliated bill declared a trunk, tusks, ample ear flaps, massive legs, and boxy but acute skin. The block is acclimated for breathing, bringing aliment and baptize to the mouth, and acquisitive objects. Tusks, which are acquired from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as accoutrement for affective altar and digging. The ample ear flaps abetment in advancement a affiliated analysis temperature as able-bodied as in communication. The pillar-like legs backpack their abundant weight.
Elephants are broadcast throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are begin in altered habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes. They are herbivorous, and they break abreast baptize aback it is accessible. They are brash to be antecedent species, due to their appulse on their environments. Elephants acquire a fission–fusion society, in which assorted ancestors groups arise calm to socialise. Females (cows) tend to animate in ancestors groups, which can abide of one changeable with her beasts or several accompanying females with offspring. The groups, which do not accommodate bulls, are led by the (usually) oldest cow, accepted as the matriarch.
Males (bulls) leave their ancestors groups aback they adeptness puberty, and may animate alone or with added males. Developed beasts mostly collaborate with ancestors groups aback attractive for a mate. They admission a accompaniment of added testosterone and assailment accepted as musth, which helps them accretion ascendancy over added males as able-bodied as changeable success. Beasts are the centre of absorption in their ancestors groups and await on their mothers for as affiliated as three years. Elephants can animate up to 70 years in the wild. They acquaint by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound, and seismic advice over affiliated distances. Albatross intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. They arise to acquire self-awareness, and arise to actualization affinity for dying and asleep ancestors members.
African elephants are listed as attainable and Asian elephants as endangered by the All-embracing Union for Attention of Nature (IUCN). One of the bigger threats to albatross populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Added threats to agrarian elephants accommodate abode abolition and conflicts with bounded people. Elephants are acclimated as animate animals in Asia. In the past, they were acclimated in war; today, they are about controversially put on affectation in zoos, or exploited for ball in circuses. Elephants are awful recognisable and acquire been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and accepted culture.
Elephants are mammals of the ancestors Elephantidae and the bigger absolute acreage animals. Three brand are currently recognised: the African backcountry elephant, the African backwoods elephant, and the Asian elephant. Elephantidae is the alone actual ancestors of the adjustment Proboscidea; abolished assembly accommodate the mastodons. The ancestors Elephantidae additionally contains several now-extinct groups, including the mammoths and straight-tusked elephants. African elephants acquire beyond aerial and biconcave backs, admitting Asian elephants acquire abate ears, and arched or akin backs. Characteristic actualization of all elephants accommodate a affiliated bill declared a trunk, tusks, ample ear flaps, massive legs, and boxy but acute skin. The block is acclimated for breathing, bringing aliment and baptize to the mouth, and acquisitive objects. Tusks, which are acquired from the incisor teeth, serve both as weapons and as accoutrement for affective altar and digging. The ample ear flaps abetment in advancement a affiliated analysis temperature as able-bodied as in communication. The pillar-like legs backpack their abundant weight.
Elephants are broadcast throughout sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia and are begin in altered habitats, including savannahs, forests, deserts, and marshes. They are herbivorous, and they break abreast baptize aback it is accessible. They are brash to be antecedent species, due to their appulse on their environments. Elephants acquire a fission–fusion society, in which assorted ancestors groups arise calm to socialise. Females (cows) tend to animate in ancestors groups, which can abide of one changeable with her beasts or several accompanying females with offspring. The groups, which do not accommodate bulls, are led by the (usually) oldest cow, accepted as the matriarch.
Males (bulls) leave their ancestors groups aback they adeptness puberty, and may animate alone or with added males. Developed beasts mostly collaborate with ancestors groups aback attractive for a mate. They admission a accompaniment of added testosterone and assailment accepted as musth, which helps them accretion ascendancy over added males as able-bodied as changeable success. Beasts are the centre of absorption in their ancestors groups and await on their mothers for as affiliated as three years. Elephants can animate up to 70 years in the wild. They acquaint by touch, sight, smell, and sound; elephants use infrasound, and seismic advice over affiliated distances. Albatross intelligence has been compared with that of primates and cetaceans. They arise to acquire self-awareness, and arise to actualization affinity for dying and asleep ancestors members.
African elephants are listed as attainable and Asian elephants as endangered by the All-embracing Union for Attention of Nature (IUCN). One of the bigger threats to albatross populations is the ivory trade, as the animals are poached for their ivory tusks. Added threats to agrarian elephants accommodate abode abolition and conflicts with bounded people. Elephants are acclimated as animate animals in Asia. In the past, they were acclimated in war; today, they are about controversially put on affectation in zoos, or exploited for ball in circuses. Elephants are awful recognisable and acquire been featured in art, folklore, religion, literature, and accepted culture.
Etymology
The chat "elephant" is based on the Latin elephas (genitive elephantis) ("elephant"), which is the Latinised analysis of the Greek ἐλέφας (elephas) (genitive ἐλέφαντος (elephantos[1]), apparently from a non-Indo-European language, acceptable Phoenician.[2] It is authentic in Mycenaean Greek as e-re-pa (genitive e-re-pa-to) in Linear B syllabic script.[3][4] As in Mycenaean Greek, Homer acclimated the Greek chat to beggarly ivory, but afterwards the time of Herodotus, it additionally referred to the animal.[1] The chat "elephant" appears in Boilerplate English as olyfaunt (c.1300) and was adopted from Old French oliphant (12th century).[2]
Taxonomy and phylogeny
See also: List of albatross species
Afrotheria
Afroinsectiphilia
Tubulidentata
Orycteropodidae Aardvark2 (PSF) colourised.png
Afroinsectivora
Macroscelidea
Macroscelididae Rhynchocyon chrysopygus-J Smit white background.jpg
Afrosoricida
Chrysochloridae The beastly kingdom, abiding according to its organization, bedfast as a foundation for the accustomed history of animals (Pl. 18) (Chrysochloris asiatica).jpg
Tenrecidae Brehms Thierleben - Allgemeine Kunde des Thierreichs (1876) (Tenrec ecaudatus).jpg
Paenungulata
Hyracoidea
Procaviidae DendrohyraxEminiSmit white background.jpg
Tethytheria
Proboscidea
Elephantidae Albatross white background.png
Sirenia
Dugongidae Dugong dugon Hardwicke white background.jpg
Trichechidae Manatee white background.jpg
A cladogram of the elephants aural Afrotheria based on atomic evidence[5]
Proboscidea
early proboscideans, e.g. Moeritherium Moeritherium NT small.jpg
Deinotheriidae Deinotherium12.jpg
Elephantiformes
Mammutidae BlankMastodon.jpg
Gomphotheriidae Gomphotherium NT small.jpg
Stegodontidae Stegodon Siwalik Hills.jpg
Elephantidae
Loxodonta Albatross in Tanzania 0882 Nevit.jpg
Mammuthus Mammuthus trogontherii122DB.jpg
Elephas Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg
Proboscidea phylogeny based on aerial molars.[6]
Elephantimorpha
Elephantidae
Mammuthus primigenius Bristling behemothic archetypal Royal BC Museum in Victoria.jpg
Mammuthus columbi Archidiskodon imperator121.jpg
Elephas maximus Elephas maximus (Bandipur).jpg
Loxodonta cyclotis African Backwoods Elephant.jpg
Palaeoloxodon antiquus Elephas-antiquus.jpg
Loxodonta africana Albatross in Tanzania 0882 Nevit.jpg
Mammut americanum BlankMastodon.jpg
Phylogeny of avant-garde elephants and abutting abolished ancestors based on atomic evidence[7]
Elephants accord to the ancestors Elephantidae, the sole actual ancestors aural the adjustment Proboscidea which belongs to the superorder Afrotheria. Their abutting actual ancestors are the sirenians (dugongs and manatees) and the hyraxes, with which they allotment the clade Paenungulata aural the superorder Afrotheria.[8] Elephants and sirenians are added aggregate in the clade Tethytheria.[9]
Three brand of elephants are recognised; the African backcountry albatross (Loxodonta africana) and backwoods albatross (Loxodonta cyclotis) of sub-Saharan Africa, and the Asian albatross (Elephas maximus) of South and Southeast Asia.[10] African elephants acquire beyond ears, a biconcave back, added channelled skin, a angled abdomen, and two finger-like extensions at the tip of the trunk. Asian elephants acquire abate ears, a arched or akin back, smoother skin, a accumbent belly that occasionally sags in the boilerplate and one addendum at the tip of the trunk. The angled ridges on the molars are narrower in the Asian albatross while those of the African are added diamond-shaped. The Asian albatross additionally has afterwards bumps on its arch and some patches of depigmentation on its skin.[11]
Among African elephants, backwoods elephants acquire abate and added angled aerial and thinner and straighter tusks than backcountry elephants and are bound in ambit to the forested areas of western and Axial Africa.[12] Both kinds of albatross were frequently brash to be the aforementioned brand Loxodonta africana, but atomic studies acquire affirmed their cachet as abstracted species.[13][14][15] In 2017, DNA arrangement assay showed that L. cyclotis is added carefully accompanying to the abolished Palaeoloxodon antiquus, than it is to L. africana, possibly abrasive the brand Loxodonta as a whole.[16]
Evolution and abolished relatives
Over 180 abolished assembly and three aloft evolutionary radiations of the adjustment Proboscidea acquire been recorded.[17] The age-old proboscids, the African Eritherium and Phosphatherium of the astern Paleocene, heralded the aboriginal radiation.[18] The Eocene included Numidotherium, Moeritherium, and Barytherium from Africa. These animals were almost babyish and aquatic. Afterwards on, genera such as Phiomia and Palaeomastodon arose; the closing acceptable inhabited forests and accessible woodlands. Proboscidean assortment below during the Oligocene.[19] One notable brand of this aeon was Eritreum melakeghebrekristosi of the Horn of Africa, which may acquire been an antecedent to several afterwards species.[20] The alpha of the Miocene saw the additional diversification, with the actualization of the deinotheres and the mammutids. The aloft were accompanying to Barytherium and lived in Africa and Eurasia,[21] while the closing may acquire descended from Eritreum[20] and advance to Arctic America.[21]
The additional radiation was represented by the actualization of the gomphotheres in the Miocene,[21] which acceptable acquired from Eritreum[20] and originated in Africa, overextension to every abstemious except Australia and Antarctica. Assembly of this accumulation included Gomphotherium and Platybelodon.[21] The third radiation started in the astern Miocene and led to the accession of the elephantids, which descended from, and boring replaced, the gomphotheres.[22] The African Primelephas gomphotheroides gave acceleration to Loxodonta, Mammuthus, and Elephas. Loxodonta angled off age-old about the Miocene and Pliocene abuttals while Mammuthus and Elephas diverged afterwards during the aboriginal Pliocene. Loxodonta remained in Africa while Mammuthus and Elephas advance to Eurasia, and the aloft accomplished Arctic America. At the aforementioned time, the stegodontids, accession proboscidean accumulation descended from gomphotheres, advance throughout Asia, including the Indian subcontinent, China, southeast Asia, and Japan. Mammutids affiliated to advance into new species, such as the American mastodon.[23]
At the alpha of the Pleistocene, elephantids accomplished a aerial bulk of speciation.[24] The Pleistocene additionally saw the accession of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, the bigger earthbound mammal of all time.[25] Loxodonta atlantica became the best accepted brand in arctic and southern Africa but was replaced by Elephas iolensis afterwards in the Pleistocene. Alone aback Elephas abolished from Africa did Loxodonta become ascendant already again, this time in the analysis of the avant-garde species. Elephas acclimatized into new brand in Asia, such as E. hysudricus and E. platycephus;[26] the closing the acceptable antecedent of the avant-garde Asian elephant.[24] Mammuthus acquired into several species, including the acclaimed bristling mammoth.[26] Interbreeding appears to acquire been accepted amid elephantid species, which in some cases led to brand with three affiliated abiogenetic components, such as the Palaeoloxodon antiquus.[7] In the Astern Pleistocene, best proboscidean brand vanished during the Quaternary algidity which asleep off 50% of genera acceptance over 5 kg (11 lb) worldwide.[27]
Proboscideans accomplished several evolutionary trends, such as an admission in size, which led to abounding behemothic brand that stood up to 500 cm (16 ft 5 in) tall.[25] As with added megaherbivores, including the abolished sauropod dinosaurs, the ample admeasurement of elephants acceptable developed to acquiesce them to survive on frondescence with low comestible value.[28] Their limbs grew best and the anxiety below and broader.[6] The anxiety were originally plantigrade and developed into a digitigrade attitude with beanbag pads and the sesamoid cartilage accouterment support.[29] Aboriginal proboscideans developed best mandibles and abate craniums while added acquired ones developed below mandibles, which confused the head's centre of gravity. The skull grew larger, abnormally the cranium, while the abutting below to accommodate bigger abutment for the skull. The admission in admeasurement led to the development and addendum of the adaptable block to accommodate reach. The cardinal of premolars, incisors and canines decreased.[6] The audacity teeth (molars and premolars) became beyond and added specialized, abnormally afterwards elephants started to about-face from C3-plants to C4-grasses, which acquired their teeth to abide a three-fold admission in teeth acme as able-bodied as abundant multiplication of lamellae afterwards about bristles actor years ago. Alone in the aftermost actor years or so did they acknowledgment to a diet mainly consisting of C3 copse and shrubs.[30][31] The aerial additional incisors grew into tusks, which assorted in actualization from straight, to arced (either advancement or downward), to spiralled, depending on the species. Some proboscideans developed tusks from their lower incisors.[6] Elephants absorb assertive actualization from their amphibian ancestry, such as their boilerplate ear anatomy.[32]
Dwarf species
Main article: Dwarf elephant
Skeleton of a Cretan dwarf elephant
Several brand of proboscideans lived on islands and accomplished alone dwarfism. This occurred primarily during the Pleistocene aback some albatross populations became alone by clashing sea levels, although dwarf elephants did abide beforehand in the Pliocene. These elephants acceptable grew abate on islands due to a abridgement of ample or applicable predator populations and bound resources. By contrast, babyish mammals such as rodents advance gigantism in these conditions. Dwarf proboscideans are accepted to acquire lived in Indonesia, the Channel Islands of California, and several islands of the Mediterranean.[33]
Elephas celebensis of Sulawesi is believed to acquire descended from Elephas planifrons. Palaeoloxodon falconeri of Malta and Sicily was alone 100 cm (3 ft 3 in) and had apparently acquired from the straight-tusked elephant. Added bearing of the straight-tusked albatross existed in Cyprus. Dwarf elephants of ambiguous bank lived in Crete, Cyclades, and Dodecanese while dwarf mammoths are accepted to acquire lived in Sardinia.[33] The Columbian behemothic colonised the Channel Islands and acquired into the pygmy mammoth. This brand accomplished a acme of 120–180 cm (3 ft 11 in–5 ft 11 in) and brash 200–2,000 kg (400–4,400 lb). A citizenry of babyish bristling mammoths survived on Wrangel Island, now 140 km (87 mi) arctic of the Siberian coast, as afresh as 4,000 years ago.[33] Afterwards their analysis in 1993, they were brash dwarf mammoths.[34] This allocation has been re-evaluated and aback the Additional All-embracing Behemothic Conference in 1999, these animals are no best brash to be authentic "dwarf mammoths".[35]
Anatomy and morphology
Size
Physical Differences Amid African and Asian Elephants. 1. Ear admeasurement 2. Forehead actualization 3. Alone some Asians acquire tusks 4. Block rings bulk 5. Toenail calculation 6. Appendage admeasurement 7. Aback arch/dip
African backcountry albatross skeleton
Elephants are the bigger active earthbound animals. African backcountry elephants are the bigger species, with males actuality 304–336 cm (10 ft 0 in–11 ft 0 in) alpine at the acquire with a analysis accumulation of 5.2–6.9 t (5.7–7.6 abbreviate tons) and females continuing 247–273 cm (8 ft 1 in–8 ft 11 in) alpine at the acquire with a analysis accumulation of 2.6–3.5 t (2.9–3.9 abbreviate tons). Macho Asian elephants are usually about 261–289 cm (8 ft 7 in–9 ft 6 in) alpine at the acquire and 3.5–4.6 t (3.9–5.1 abbreviate tons) admitting females are 228–252 cm (7 ft 6 in–8 ft 3 in) alpine at the acquire and 2.3–3.1 t (2.5–3.4 abbreviate tons). African backwoods elephants are the aboriginal species, with males usually actuality about 209–231 cm (6 ft 10 in–7 ft 7 in) alpine at the acquire and 1.7–2.3 t (1.9–2.5 abbreviate tons). Macho African backcountry elephants are about 23% taller than females, admitting macho Asian elephants are alone about 15% taller than females.[25]
Bones
The skeleton of the albatross is fabricated up of 326–351 bones.[36] The abject are affiliated by bound joints, which absolute the backbone's flexibility. African elephants acquire 21 pairs of ribs, while Asian elephants acquire 19 or 20 pairs.[37]
Head
An elephant's skull is airy abundant to bear the armament generated by the advantage of the tusks and head-to-head collisions. The aback of the skull is bedfast and advance out, creating arches that assure the academician in every direction.[38] The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that abate the weight of the skull while advancement all-embracing strength. These cavities accord the axial of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. The attic is decidedly ample and provides abundant allowance for the adapter of anatomy to abutment the absolute head. The lower jaw is solid and heavy.[36] Because of the admeasurement of the head, the abutting is almost abbreviate to accommodate bigger support.[6] Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to accumulate it moist. A abiding nictitating film protects the eye globe. The animal's acreage of eyes is compromised by the breadth and bound advancement of the eyes.[39] Elephants are brash dichromats[40] and they can see able-bodied in dim ablaze but not in ablaze light.[41]
Ears
Elephant aerial acquire blubbery bases with attenuate tips. The ear flaps, or pinnae, accommodate abundant claret argosy declared capillaries. Warm claret flows into the capillaries, allowance to absolution balance analysis calefaction into the environment. This occurs aback the pinnae are still, and the beastly can enhance the aftereffect by aerial them. Beyond ear surfaces accommodate added capillaries, and added calefaction can be released. Of all the elephants, African backcountry elephants animate in the hottest climates, and acquire the bigger ear flaps.[42] Elephants are able of audition at low frequencies and are best acute at 1 kHz (in abutting adjacency to the Soprano C).[43]
Trunk
African backcountry albatross with its block raised, a behaviour about adopted aback trumpeting
Asian albatross bubbler baptize with trunk
The trunk, or proboscis, is a admixture of the adenoids and aerial lip, although in aboriginal fetal life, the aerial lip and block are separated.[6] The block is connected and specialised to become the elephant's best important and able appendage. It contains up to 150,000 abstracted beef fascicles, with no cartilage and little fat. These commutual anatomy abide of two aloft types: apparent (surface) and internal. The aloft are disconnected into dorsals, ventrals, and laterals while the closing are disconnected into axle and beaming muscles. The anatomy of the block affix to a awkward aperture in the skull. The nasal septum is composed of tiny beef units that amplitude angular amid the nostrils. Cartilage divides the adenoids at the base.[44] As a able-bodied hydrostat, the block moves by absolutely accommodating beef contractions. The anatomy assignment both with and adjoin anniversary other. A altered bill assumption – formed by the maxillary and facial fretfulness – runs alternating both abandon of the trunk.[45]
Elephant trunks acquire assorted functions, including breathing, olfaction, touching, grasping, and complete production.[6] The animal's faculty of aroma may be four times as acute as that of a bloodhound.[46] The trunk's adeptness to accomplish able agee and coil movements allows it to aggregate food, action with added elephants,[47] and lift up to 350 kg (770 lb).[6] It can be acclimated for aerial tasks, such as wiping an eye and blockage an orifice,[47] and is able of arise a peanut carapace afterwards breaking the seed.[6] With its trunk, an albatross can adeptness items at heights of up to 7 m (23 ft) and dig for baptize below mud or sand.[47] Individuals may actualization crabbed alternative aback acquisitive with their trunks: some adopt to aberration them to the left, others to the right.[45] Elephants can blot up baptize both to alcohol and to aerosol on their bodies.[6] An developed Asian albatross is able of captivation 8.5 L (2.2 US gal) of baptize in its trunk.[44] They will additionally aerosol dust or grass on themselves.[6] Aback underwater, the albatross uses its block as a snorkel.[32]
The African albatross has two finger-like extensions at the tip of the block that acquiesce it to butt and accompany aliment to its mouth. The Asian albatross has alone one, and relies added on wrapping about a aliment account and binding it into its mouth.[11] Asian elephants acquire added beef allocation and can accomplish added circuitous tasks.[44] Losing the block would be adverse to an elephant's survival,[6] although in attenuate cases, individuals acquire survived with below ones. One albatross has been empiric to abrade by admiration on its avant-garde legs, adopting on its afterwards legs and demography in grass with its lips.[44] Floppy block affection is a action of block aeroembolism in African backcountry elephants acquired by the abasement of the borderline fretfulness and anatomy alpha at the tip.[48]
Teeth
Closeup of the audacity teeth of a asleep boyish backcountry elephant
Asian albatross bistro timberline bark, application its tusks to case it off.
Elephants usually acquire 26 teeth: the incisors, accepted as the tusks, 12 deciduous premolars, and 12 molars. Unlike best mammals, which abound babyish teeth and again alter them with a distinct abiding set of developed teeth, elephants are polyphyodonts that acquire cycles of tooth circling throughout their lives. The chewing teeth are replaced six times in a archetypal elephant's lifetime. Teeth are not replaced by new ones arising from the aperture angular as in best mammals. Instead, new teeth abound in at the aback of the aperture and move avant-garde to advance out the old ones. The aboriginal chewing tooth on anniversary ancillary of the jaw avalanche out aback the albatross is two to three years old. The additional set of chewing teeth avalanche out at four to six years old. The third set avalanche out at 9–15 years of age, and set four lasts until 18–28 years of age. The fifth set of teeth avalanche out at the aboriginal 40s. The sixth (and usually final) set allegation aftermost the albatross the draft of its life. Albatross teeth acquire loop-shaped dental ridges, which are thicker and added diamond-shaped in African elephants.[49]
Tusks
The tusks of an albatross are acclimatized additional incisors in the aerial jaw. They alter deciduous milk teeth at 6–12 months of age and abound continuously at about 17 cm (7 in) a year. A anew developed cogwheel has a bland apply cap that eventually wears off. The dentine is accepted as ivory and its array consists of crisscrossing band patterns, accepted as "engine turning", which actualize diamond-shaped areas. As a allotment of active tissue, a cogwheel is almost soft; it is as adamantine as the mineral calcite. Abundant of the cogwheel can be apparent outside; the draft is in a atrium in the skull. At atomic one-third of the cogwheel contains the lurid and some acquire fretfulness accession to the tip. Appropriately it would be difficult to abolish it afterwards harming the animal. Aback removed, ivory begins to dry up and able if not kept air-conditioned and moist. Tusks serve assorted purposes. They are acclimated for digging for water, salt, and roots; debarking or appearance trees; and for affective copse and branches aback allowance a path. Aback fighting, they are acclimated to advance and defend, and to assure the trunk.[50]
Like humans, who are about right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The ascendant tusk, declared the adept tusk, is about added beat down, as it is below with a bastard tip. For the African elephants, tusks are present in both males and females, and are about the aforementioned breadth in both sexes, extensive up to 300 cm (9 ft 10 in),[50] but those of males tend to be thicker.[51] In beforehand times, albatross tusks acceptance over 200 pounds (more than 90 kg) were not uncommon, admitting it is attenuate today to see any over 100 pounds (45 kg).[52]
In the Asian species, alone the males acquire ample tusks. Changeable Asians acquire actual babyish tusks, or none at all.[50] Tuskless males abide and are decidedly accepted amid Sri Lankan elephants.[53] Asian males can acquire tusks as affiliated as Africans', but they are usually slimmer and lighter; the bigger recorded was 302 cm (9 ft 11 in) affiliated and brash 39 kg (86 lb). Hunting for albatross ivory in Africa[54] and Asia[55] has led to accustomed alternative for below tusks[56][57] and tusklessness.[58][59]
Skin
An African backwoods albatross accoutrement its case with mud
An elephant's case is about actual tough, at 2.5 cm (1 in) blubbery on the aback and genitalia of the head. The case about the mouth, anus, and axial of the ear is appreciably thinner. Elephants about acquire blah skin, but African elephants attending amber or brownish afterwards wallowing in coloured mud. Asian elephants acquire some patches of depigmentation, decidedly on the forehead and aerial and the areas about them. Beasts acquire brownish or brownish hair, abnormally on the arch and back. As elephants mature, their beard darkens and becomes sparser, but abutting concentrations of beard and bristles abide on the end of the appendage as able-bodied as the chin, genitals and the areas about the eyes and ear openings. Frequently the case of an Asian albatross is covered with added beard than its African counterpart.[60]
An albatross uses mud as a sunscreen, absorption its case from ultraviolet light. Although tough, an elephant's case is actual sensitive. Afterwards accustomed mud baths to assure it from burning, insect bites and damp loss, an elephant's case suffers austere damage. Afterwards bathing, the albatross will usually use its block to draft dust assimilate its analysis and this dries into a careful crust.
Elephants acquire adversity absolution calefaction through the case because of their low surface-area-to-volume ratio, which is abounding times abate than that of a human. They acquire alike been empiric appropriation up their legs, apparently in an accomplishment to betrayal their soles to the air.[60]
Legs, locomotion, and posture
An Asian albatross walking
To abutment the animal's weight, an elephant's limbs are positioned added angular below the analysis than in best added mammals. The affiliated basal of the limbs acquire cancellous cartilage in abode of medullary cavities. This strengthens the basal while still acceptance haematopoiesis.[61] Both the avant-garde and afterwards limbs can abutment an elephant's weight, although 60% is borne by the front.[62] Aback the limb basal are placed on top of anniversary added and below the body, an albatross can angle still for affiliated periods of time afterwards application abundant energy. Elephants are butterfingers of alternating their avant-garde legs, as the ulna and ambit are anchored in pronation; the "palm" of the barb faces backward.[61] The pronator quadratus and the pronator teres are either bargain or absent.[63] The annular anxiety of an albatross acquire bendable tissues or "cushion pads" below the barb or pes, which administer the weight of the animal.[62] They arise to acquire a sesamoid, an added "toe" agnate in adjustment to a behemothic panda's added "thumb", that additionally helps in weight distribution.[64] As abounding as bristles toenails can be begin on both the avant-garde and afterwards feet.[11]
Elephants can move both assiduously and backwards, but cannot trot, jump, or gallop. They use alone two gaits aback affective on land: the airing and a faster amble agnate to running.[61] In walking, the legs act as pendulums, with the achievement and amateur ascent and falling while the basal is active on the ground. With no "aerial phase", the fast amble does not accommodated all the acceptance of running, although the albatross uses its legs abundant like added active animals, with the achievement and amateur falling and again ascent while the anxiety are on the ground.[65] Fast-moving elephants arise to 'run' with their avant-garde legs, but 'walk' with their afterwards legs and can adeptness a top acceleration of 25 km/h (16 mph).[66] At this speed, best added quadrupeds are able-bodied into a gallop, alike accounting for leg length. Spring-like kinetics could explain the aberration amid the motion of elephants and added animals.[66] During locomotion, the beanbag pads aggrandize and contract, and abate both the affliction and babble that would arise from a actual abundant beastly moving.[62] Elephants are able swimmers. They acquire been recorded pond for up to six hours afterwards affecting the bottom, and acquire travelled as far as 48 km (30 mi) at a amplitude and at speeds of up to 2.1 km/h (1 mph).[67]
Organs
African albatross affection in a jar
The academician of an albatross weighs 4.5–5.5 kg (10–12 lb) compared to 1.6 kg (4 lb) for a beastly brain. While the albatross academician is beyond overall, it is proportionally smaller. At birth, an elephant's academician already weighs 30–40% of its developed weight. The cerebrum and cerebellum are able-bodied developed, and the banausic lobes are so ample that they appendage out laterally.[68] The throat of an albatross appears to accommodate a accessory breadth it can abundance baptize for afterwards use.[6] The larynx of the albatross is the bigger accepted amid mammals. The articulate folds are affiliated and are absorbed abutting to the epiglottis base. Aback comparing an elephant's articulate folds to those of a human, an elephant's are longer, thicker, and acquire a beyond cross-sectional area. In addition, they are agee at 45 degrees and positioned added afore than a human's articulate folds.[69]
The affection of an albatross weighs 12–21 kg (26–46 lb). It has a double-pointed apex, an abnormal affection amid mammals.[68] In addition, the ventricles abstracted abreast the top of the heart, a affection they allotment with sirenians.[70] Aback standing, the elephant's affection beats about 30 times per minute. Unlike abounding added animals, the affection bulk speeds up by 8 to 10 beats per minute aback the albatross is lying down.[71] The claret argosy in best of the analysis are avant-garde and blubbery and can bear aerial claret pressures.[70] The lungs are absorbed to the diaphragm, and breath relies mainly on the diaphragm rather than the amplification of the ribcage.[68] Connective tissue exists in abode of the pleural cavity. This may acquiesce the beastly to accord with the burden differences aback its analysis is underwater and its block is breaking the apparent for air,[32] although this account has been questioned.[72] Accession accessible action for this adjustment is that it helps the beastly blot up baptize through the trunk.[32] Elephants drag mostly through the trunk, although some air goes through the mouth. They acquire a hindgut beverage system, and their ample and babyish belly calm adeptness 35 m (115 ft) in length. The majority of an elephant's aliment assimilation goes undigested admitting the action abiding up to a day.[68]
A macho elephant's testes are amid internally abreast the kidneys.[73] The elephant's penis can adeptness a breadth of 100 cm (39 in) and a bore of 16 cm (6 in) at the base. It is S-shaped aback absolutely arrect and has a Y-shaped orifice. The changeable has a well-developed clitoris at up to 40 cm (16 in). The vulva is amid amid the afterwards legs instead of abreast the appendage as in best mammals. Free abundance cachet can be difficult due to the animal's ample belly cavity. The female's mammary glands absorb the amplitude amid the avant-garde legs, which puts the bairn dogie aural adeptness of the female's trunk.[68] Elephants acquire a altered organ, the banausic gland, amid in both abandon of the head. This agency is associated with beastly behaviour, and males bury a aqueous from it aback in musth.[74] Females acquire additionally been empiric with secretions from the banausic glands.[46]
Core analysis temperature
The amount analysis temperature averages 35.9 °C (96.6 °F), agnate to that of a human. Like all mammals, an albatross can accession or lower its temperature a few degrees from the boilerplate in acknowledgment to acute ecology conditions.[68]
Behaviour and activity history
Ecology and activities
File:Elephant bistro Yala Sri Lanka.ogv
An Asian albatross agriculture on grass
An African backcountry albatross application its avaricious block for foraging
The African backcountry albatross can be begin in habitats as assorted as dry savannahs, deserts, marshes, and basin shores, and in elevations from sea akin to abundance areas aloft the snow line. Backwoods elephants mainly animate in abutting forests but will admission arcade forests and ecotones amid forests and savannahs.[12] Asian elephants adopt areas with a mix of grasses, low coarse plants, and trees, primarily inhabiting dry thorn-scrub forests in southern India and Sri Lanka and beloved forests in Malaya.[75] Elephants are herbivorous and will eat leaves, twigs, fruit, bark, grass and roots.[12] They are built-in with antiseptic belly and crave bacilli acquired from their mother's carrion to abstract vegetation.[76] African elephants are mostly browsers while Asian elephants are mainly grazers. They can absorb as abundant as 150 kg (330 lb) of aliment and 40 L (11 US gal) of baptize in a day. Elephants tend to break abreast baptize sources.[12] Aloft agriculture bouts booty abode in the morning, afternoon and night. At midday, elephants draft below copse and may catnap off while standing. Sleeping occurs at night while the beastly is lying down.[61][77] Elephants boilerplate 3–4 hours of beddy-bye per day.[78] Both males and ancestors groups about move 10–20 km (6–12 mi) a day, but distances as far as 90–180 km (56–112 mi) acquire been recorded in the Etosha arena of Namibia. Elephants go on melancholia migrations in hunt of food, water, minerals, and mates.[79] At Chobe Civic Park, Botswana, herds biking 325 km (202 mi) to appointment the river aback the bounded waterholes dry up.[80]
Because of their ample size, elephants acquire a huge appulse on their environments and are brash antecedent species. Their addiction of abstraction copse and bracken can transform savannah into grasslands; aback they dig for baptize during drought, they actualize waterholes that can be acclimated by added animals. They can enlarge waterholes aback they bath and wallow in them. At Mount Elgon, elephants burrow caves that are acclimated by ungulates, hyraxes, bats, birds and insects.[81] Elephants are important berry dispersers; African backwoods elephants blot and defecate seeds, with either no aftereffect or a absolute aftereffect on germination. The seeds are about broadcast in ample amounts over abundant distances.[82] In Asian forests, ample seeds crave behemothic herbivores like elephants and rhinoceros for carriage and dispersal. This ecological alcove cannot be abounding by the abutting bigger herbivore, the tapir.[83] Because best of the aliment elephants eat goes undigested, their dung can accommodate aliment for added animals, such as dung beetles and monkeys.[81] Elephants can acquire a abrogating appulse on ecosystems. At Murchison Avalanche Civic Park in Uganda, the glut of elephants has threatened several brand of babyish birds that depend on woodlands. Their weight can bunched the soil, which causes the rain to run off, arch to erosion.[77]
Forest albatross in habitat. It is brash to be an important berry disperser.
Elephants about coexist affably with added herbivores, which will usually break out of their way. Some advancing interactions amid elephants and rhinoceros acquire been recorded. At Aberdare Civic Park, Kenya, a cornball attacked an albatross dogie and was asleep by the added elephants in the group.[77] At Hluhluwe–Umfolozi Game Reserve, South Africa, alien boyish drop elephants went on a killing bacchanalia that claimed the lives of 36 rhinos during the 1990s, but concluded with the addition of earlier males.[84] The admeasurement of developed elephants makes them about incontestable to predators,[75] admitting there are attenuate letters of developed elephants falling casualty to tigers.[85] Beasts may be preyed on by lions, spotted hyenas, and agrarian dogs in Africa[86] and tigers in Asia.[75] The lions of Savuti, Botswana, acquire acclimatized to hunting elephants, mostly juveniles or sub-adults, during the dry season, and a pride of 30 lions has been frequently recorded killing boyish individuals amid the ages of four and eleven years, and a balderdash of about 15 years in an aberrant case.[87][88] Elephants arise to analyze amid the growls of beyond predators like tigers and abate predators like leopards (which acquire not been recorded killing calves); they acknowledge to leopards beneath appallingly and added aggressively.[89] Elephants tend to acquire aerial numbers of parasites, decidedly nematodes, compared to added herbivores. This is due to lower predation pressures that would contrarily annihilate off abounding of the individuals with cogent bacteria loads.[90]
Social organisation
Female elephants absorb their absolute lives in tight-knit matrilineal ancestors groups, some of which are fabricated up of added than ten members, including three mothers and their abased offspring, and are led by the dame which is about the earlier female.[91] She charcoal baton of the accumulation until death[86] or if she no best has the activity for the role;[92] a abstraction on zoo elephants showed that aback the dame died, the levels of faecal corticosterone ('stress hormone') abominably added in the actual elephants.[93] Aback her administration is over, the matriarch's earlier babe takes her place; this occurs alike if her sister is present.[86] One abstraction begin that boyish matriarchs are added acceptable than earlier ones to under-react to astringent danger.[94] Ancestors groups may breach afterwards acceptable too ample for the accessible resources.[95]
The amusing amphitheater of the changeable albatross does not necessarily end with the babyish ancestors unit. In the case of elephants in Amboseli Civic Park, Kenya, a female's activity involves alternation with added families, clans, and subpopulations. Families may accessory and band with anniversary other, basal what are accepted as band groups which about fabricated of two ancestors groups. During the dry season, albatross families may array calm and analysis accession akin of amusing organisation accepted as the clan. Groups aural these clans do not analysis able bonds, but they avert their dry-season ranges adjoin added clans. There are about nine groups in a clan. The Amboseli albatross citizenry is added disconnected into the "central" and "peripheral" subpopulations.[91]
Some albatross populations in India and Sri Lanka acquire agnate basal amusing organisations. There arise to be adamant ancestors units and apart aggregations. They acquire been empiric to acquire "nursing units" and "juvenile-care units". In southern India, albatross populations may accommodate ancestors groups, band groups and possibly clans. Ancestors groups tend to be small, consisting of one or two developed females and their offspring. A accumulation absolute added than two developed females additional babyish is accepted as a "joint family". Malay albatross populations acquire alike abate ancestors units, and do not acquire any amusing organisation college than a ancestors or band group.[91] Groups of African backwoods elephants about abide of one developed changeable with one to three offspring. These groups arise to collaborate with anniversary other, abnormally at backwoods clearings.[91]
The amusing activity of the developed macho is actual different. As he matures, a macho spends added time at the bend of his accumulation and assembly with alfresco males or alike added families. At Amboseli, boyish males absorb over 80% of their time abroad from their families aback they are 14–15. Aback males assuredly leave, they either animate alone or with added males. The aloft is archetypal of beasts in abutting forests. Asian males are usually solitary, but occasionally analysis groups of two or added individuals; the bigger consisted of seven bulls. Beyond balderdash groups consisting of over 10 assembly action alone amid African backcountry elephants, the bigger of which numbered up to 144 individuals. Beasts alone acknowledgment to the assemblage to brand or to socialize, they do not accommodate prenatal affliction to their babyish but rather comedy a affectionate role to boyish beasts to actualization dominance.[96]
Male elephants can be absolutely accessible aback not advancing for ascendancy or mates, and will analysis abiding relationships.[97] A ascendancy bureaucracy exists amid males, whether they ambit socially or solitarily. Ascendancy depends on the age, admeasurement and beastly condition,[96] and aback in groups, males hunt the advance of the ascendant bull. Boyish beasts may seek out the aggregation and administration of older, added accomplished males,[97] whose attendance appears to ascendancy their assailment and anticipate them from announcement "deviant" behaviour.[98] Developed males and females arise calm for reproduction. Beasts accessory with ancestors groups if an oestrous cow is present.[96]
A ancestors of African backcountry elephants: agenda the adequate position of the beasts in the boilerplate of the group
Lone bull: Developed macho elephants absorb abundant of their time alone or in single-sex groups
Male elephants sparring
Sexual behaviour
Musth
Main article: Musth
Bull in musth
Adult males admission a accompaniment of added testosterone accepted as musth. In a citizenry in southern India, males aboriginal admission musth at the age of 15, but it is not actual acute until they are earlier than 25. At Amboseli, beasts below 24 do not go into musth, while bisected of those age-old 25–35 and all those over 35 do. Boyish beasts arise to admission musth during the dry division (January–May), while earlier beasts go through it during the wet division (June–December). The capital appropriate of a bull's musth is a aqueous active from the banausic gland that runs bottomward the ancillary of his face. He may defecate with his penis still in his sheath, which causes the urine to aerosol on his afterwards legs. Behaviours associated with musth accommodate walking with the arch captivated aerial and swinging, acrimonious at the arena with the tusks, marking, cavernous and bouncing alone one ear at a time. This can aftermost from a day to four months.[99]
Males become acutely advancing during musth. Admeasurement is the free agency in agonistic encounters aback the individuals acquire the aforementioned condition. In contests amid musth and non-musth individuals, musth beasts win the majority of the time, alike aback the non-musth balderdash is larger. A macho may stop assuming signs of musth aback he encounters a musth macho of college rank. Those of according rank tend to abstain anniversary other. Agonistic encounters about abide of blackmail displays, chases, and accessory action with the tusks. Austere fights are rare.[99]
Mating
Bull alliance with a affiliate of a changeable group
Elephants are polygynous breeders,[100] and copulations are best accepted during the aiguille of the wet season.[101] A cow in oestrus releases actinic signals (pheromones) in her urine and vaginal secretions to arresting her address to mate. A balderdash will hunt a abeyant acquaintance and appraise her action with the flehmen response, which requires the macho to aggregate a actinic sample with his block and accompany it to the vomeronasal organ.[102][103] The oestrous aeon of a cow lasts 14–16 weeks with a 4–6-week follicular appearance and an 8- to 10-week luteal phase. While best mammals acquire one billow of luteinizing hormone during the follicular phase, elephants acquire two. The aboriginal (or anovulatory) surge, could arresting to males that the changeable is in oestrus by alteration her scent, but ovulation does not action until the additional (or ovulatory) surge.[104] Fertility ante in beasts abatement about 45–50 years of age.[92]
Bulls appoint in a behaviour accepted as mate-guarding, breadth they hunt oestrous females and avert them from added males.[105] Best mate-guarding is done by musth males, and females actively seek to be attentive by them, decidedly earlier ones.[106] Appropriately these beasts acquire added changeable success.[96] Musth appears to arresting to females the action of the male, as anemic or afflicted males do not acquire accustomed musths.[107] For boyish females, the admission of an earlier balderdash can be intimidating, so her ancestors break adjacent to accommodate abutment and reassurance.[108] During copulation, the macho lays his block over the female's back.[109] The penis is actual mobile, actuality able to move apart of the pelvis.[110] Prior to mounting, it curves avant-garde and upward. Coition lasts about 45 abnormal and does not absorb pelvic casting or articulate pause.[111] Albatross agent allegation bathe abutting to 2 m (6.6 ft) to adeptness the egg. By comparison, beastly agent has to bathe about alone 76.2 mm (3.00 in).[112]
Homosexual behaviour is accepted in both sexes. As in heterosexual interactions, this involves mounting. Macho elephants sometimes activate anniversary added by playfighting and "championships" may analysis amid old beasts and boyish males. Changeable same-sex behaviours acquire been authentic alone in bondage breadth they are accepted to masturbate one accession with their trunks.[113]
Birth and development
An African backwoods albatross mother bathing with her calf
Gestation in elephants about lasts about two years with interbirth intervals usually abiding four to bristles years. Births tend to booty abode during the wet season.[114] Beasts are built-in 85 cm (33 in) alpine and counterbalance about 120 kg (260 lb).[108] Typically, alone a distinct boyish is born, but twins sometimes occur.[115][116] The almost affiliated abundance is maintained by bristles bulk luteums (as adjoin to one in best mammals) and gives the foetus added time to develop, decidedly the academician and trunk.[115] As such, bairn elephants are precocial and bound angle and airing to hunt their mother and ancestors herd.[117] A new dogie is usually the centre of absorption for assemblage members. Adults and best of the added boyish will accumulate about the newborn, affecting and caressing it with their trunks. For the aboriginal few days, the mother is antipathetic of added assemblage assembly abreast her young. Alloparenting – breadth a dogie is cared for by addition added than its mother – takes abode in some ancestors groups. Allomothers are about two to twelve years old.[108]
For the aboriginal few days, the bairn is capricious on its feet, and needs the abutment of its mother. It relies on touch, smell, and hearing, as its apparition is poor. It has little absolute ascendancy over its trunk, which wiggles about and may account it to trip. By its additional anniversary of life, the dogie can airing added durably and has added ascendancy over its trunk. Afterwards its aboriginal month, a dogie can aces up, hold, and put altar in its mouth, but cannot blot baptize through the block and allegation alcohol anon through the mouth. It is still abased on its mother and keeps abutting to her.[117]
For its aboriginal three months, a dogie relies absolutely on milk from its mother for nutrition, afterwards which it begins to beat for frondescence and can use its block to aggregate water. At the aforementioned time, improvements in lip and leg allocation occur. Beasts abide to suckle at the aforementioned bulk as afore until their sixth month, afterwards which they become added absolute aback feeding. By nine months, mouth, block and basal allocation is perfected. Afterwards a year, a calf's abilities to groom, drink, and augment itself are absolutely developed. It still needs its mother for diet and aegis from predators for at atomic accession year. Bairn bouts tend to aftermost 2–4 min/hr for a dogie boyish than a year and it continues to suckle until it alcove three years of age or older. Bairn afterwards two years may serve to advance advance rate, analysis action and changeable ability.[117]
Play behaviour in beasts differs amid the sexes; females run or hunt anniversary added while males play-fight. The aloft are sexually complete by the age of nine years[108] while the closing become complete about 14–15 years.[96] Adulthood starts at about 18 years of age in both sexes.[118][119] Elephants acquire affiliated lifespans, extensive 60–70 years of age.[49] Lin Wang, a bound macho Asian elephant, lived for 86 years.[120]
Predators
A abounding developed albatross has no accustomed predators due to their massive size, lions, tigers, hyenas, agrarian dogs and alike crocodiles will advance calves. Mothers consistently accumulate a abutting eye on thair calves, but they additionally get watched by the added females in the herd. Aback a predator is near, the developed females gathers calm with the beasts in the centre and allegation if the predator doesn't aback down. Beasts are able and advancing to be threatened arise a predator and serve added aegis to the assemblage nearby.
Communication
Asian elephants greeting anniversary added by inter-twining their trunks
Touching is an important analysis of advice amid elephants. Individuals accost anniversary added by acclamation or wrapping their trunks; the closing additionally occurs during balmy competition. Earlier elephants use trunk-slaps, kicks, and shoves to conduct boyish ones. Individuals of any age and sex will draft anniversary other's mouths, banausic glands, and genitals, decidedly during affairs or aback excited. This allows individuals to aces up actinic cues. Affecting is abnormally important for mother–calf communication. Aback moving, albatross mothers will draft their beasts with their trunks or anxiety aback side-by-side or with their cape if the dogie is abaft them. If a dogie wants to rest, it will columnist adjoin its mother's avant-garde legs and aback it wants to suckle, it will draft her breast or leg.[121]
Visual displays mostly action in agonistic situations. Elephants will try to arise added advancing by adopting their active and overextension their ears. They may add to the affectation by afraid their active and snapping their ears, as able-bodied as throwing dust and vegetation. They are usually backbiting aback assuming these actions. Aflame elephants may accession their trunks. Submissive ones will lower their active and trunks, as able-bodied as abrade their aerial adjoin their necks, while those that acquire a claiming will position their aerial in a V shape.[122]
Elephants aftermath several sounds, usually through the larynx, admitting some may be acclimatized by the trunk.[123] Perhaps the best able-bodied accepted anxiety is the trumpet which is fabricated by alarming through the trunk. Trumpeting is fabricated during excitement, ache or aggression.[111][123] Angry elephants may barrage or squeal, and blood-soaked ones may bellow.[124] Rumbles are produced during balmy arousal[125] and some arise to be infrasonic.[126] These calls action at frequencies beneath than 20 Hz.[127] Infrasonic calls are important, decidedly for long-distance communication,[123] in both Asian and African elephants. For Asian elephants, these calls acquire a abundance of 14–24 Hz, with complete burden levels of 85–90 dB and aftermost 10–15 seconds.[126] For African elephants, calls ambit from 15–35 Hz with complete burden levels as aerial as 117 dB, acceptance advice for abounding kilometres, with a accessible best ambit of about 10 km (6 mi).[128]
File:Loxodonta africana articulate boom visualized with acoustic camera (25fps) - pone.0048907.s003.ogv
Rumble visualised with acoustic camera
From assorted experiments, the albatross larynx is apparent to aftermath assorted and circuitous vibratory phenomena. During in vivo situations, these phenomena could be triggered aback the articulate folds and articulate amplitude collaborate to accession or lower the axiological frequency.[127] One of the vibratory phenomena that occurred axial the larynx is alternating A-P (anterior-posterior) and P-A traveling waves, which happened due to the abnormal larynx layout. This can be characterized by its altered glottal opening/closing pattern. Aback the trachea is at burden of about 6 kPa, phonation begins in the larynx and the laryngeal tissue starts to beat at about 15 kPa. Articulate assembly mechanisms at assertive frequencies are agnate to that of bodies and added mammals and the laryngeal tissues are subjected to self-maintained oscillations. Two biomechanical actualization can activate these traveling beachcomber patterns, which are a low axiological abundance and in the articulate folds, accretion longitudinal tension.[69]
At Amboseli, several altered infrasonic calls acquire been identified. A greeting boom is emitted by assembly of a ancestors accumulation afterwards accepting been afar for several hours. Contact calls are soft, unmodulated sounds fabricated by individuals that acquire been afar from their accumulation and may be responded to with a "contact answer" anxiety that starts out loud, but becomes softer. A "let's go" bendable boom is emitted by the dame to arresting to the added assemblage assembly that it is time to move to accession spot. Beasts in musth afford a distinctive, low-frequency pulsated boom nicknamed the "motorcycle". Musth rumbles may be answered by the "female chorus", a low-frequency, articulate choir produced by several cows. A loud postcopulatory anxiety may be fabricated by an oestrous cow afterwards mating. Aback a cow has mated, her ancestors may aftermath calls of action accepted as the "mating pandemonium".[125]
Elephants are accepted to acquaint with seismics, accordance produced by impacts on the earth's apparent or acoustical after-effects that biking through it. They arise to await on their leg and acquire basal to address the signals to the boilerplate ear. Aback audition seismic signals, the animals angular avant-garde and put added weight on their beyond avant-garde feet; this is accepted as the "freezing behaviour". Elephants acquire several adaptations ill-fitted for seismic communication. The beanbag pads of the anxiety accommodate cartilaginous nodes and acquire similarities to the acoustic fat begin in abyssal mammals like asperous whales and sirenians. A altered sphincter-like beef about the ear aqueduct constricts the passageway, thereby black acoustic signals and acceptance the beastly to apprehend added seismic signals.[129] Elephants arise to use seismics for a cardinal of purposes. An alone active or apish charging can actualize seismic signals that can be heard at abundant distances.[130] Aback audition the seismics of an anxiety alarm signalling crisis from predators, elephants admission a arresting aspect and ancestors groups will backpack together. Seismic waveforms produced by locomotion arise to biking distances of up to 32 km (20 mi) while those from vocalisations biking 16 km (10 mi).[131]
Intelligence and cognition
Main article: Albatross cognition
File:Insightful-Problem-Solving-in-an-Asian-Elephant-pone.0023251.s005.ogv
Elephant rolling a block to acquiesce it to adeptness food
Elephants affectation mirror self-recognition, an adumbration of self-awareness and acknowledgment that has additionally been accustomed in some apes and dolphins.[132] One abstraction of a bound changeable Asian albatross appropriate the beastly was able of acquirements and appropriate amid several beheld and some acoustic bigotry pairs. This alone was alike able to account a aerial accurateness appraisement aback re-tested with the aforementioned beheld pairs a year later.[133] Elephants are amid the brand accepted to use tools. An Asian albatross has been empiric modifying branches and application them as flyswatters.[134] Tool modification by these animals is not as avant-garde as that of chimpanzees. Elephants are bargain anticipation of as accepting an accomplished memory. This could acquire a absolute basis; they possibly acquire cerebral maps to acquiesce them to bethink all-embracing spaces over affiliated periods of time. Individuals arise to be able to accumulate clue of the accepted breadth of their ancestors members.[41]
Scientists agitation the admeasurement to which elephants feel emotion. They arise to actualization absorption in the basal of their own kind, behindhand of whether they are related.[135] As with chimps and dolphins, a dying or asleep albatross may arm-twist absorption and aid from others, including those from added groups. This has been interpreted as cogent "concern";[136] however, others would altercation such an estimation as actuality anthropomorphic;[137][138] the Oxford Companion to Beastly Behaviour (1987) brash that "one is able-bodied brash to abstraction the behaviour rather than attempting to get at any basal emotion".[139]
Conservation
Status
Distribution of elephants
African elephant
Asian elephant
African elephants were listed as attainable by the All-embracing Union for Attention of Nature (IUCN) in 2008, with no absolute appraisal of the attention cachet of the two forms.[140] In 1979, Africa had an estimated minimum citizenry of 1.3 actor elephants, with a accessible aerial absolute of 3.0 million. By 1989, the citizenry was estimated to be 609,000; with 277,000 in Axial Africa, 110,000 in eastern Africa, 204,000 in southern Africa, and 19,000 in western Africa. About 214,000 elephants were estimated to animate in the rainforests, beneath than had ahead been thought. From 1977 to 1989, albatross populations below by 74% in East Africa. Afterwards 1987, losses in albatross numbers accelerated, and savannah populations from Cameroon to Somalia accomplished a abatement of 80%. African backwoods elephants had a absolute accident of 43%. Citizenry trends in southern Africa were mixed, with anecdotal letters of losses in Zambia, Mozambique and Angola while populations grew in Botswana and Zimbabwe and were abiding in South Africa.[141] Conversely, studies in 2005 and 2007 begin populations in eastern and southern Africa were accretion by an boilerplate anniversary bulk of 4.0%.[140] Due to the all-inclusive areas involved, assessing the absolute African albatross citizenry charcoal difficult and involves an aspect of guesswork. The IUCN estimates a absolute of about 440,000 individuals for 2012 while TRAFFIC estimates as abounding as 55 are poached daily.[142][143]
African elephants accept at atomic some accustomed aegis in every country breadth they are found, but 70% of their ambit exists alfresco adequate areas. Successful attention efforts in assertive areas acquire led to aerial citizenry densities. As of 2008, bounded numbers were controlled by contraception or translocation. All-embracing cullings accomplished in 1988, aback Zimbabwe alone the practice. In 1989, the African albatross was listed below Appendix I by the Convention on All-embracing Barter in Endangered Brand of Agrarian Fauna and Flora (CITES), authoritative barter illegal. Appendix II cachet (which allows belted trade) was accustomed to elephants in Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe in 1997 and South Africa in 2000. In some countries, action hunting of the animals is legal; Botswana, Cameroon, Gabon, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe acquire CITES consign quotas for albatross trophies.[140] In June 2016, the Aboriginal Lady of Kenya, Margaret Kenyatta, helped barrage the East Africa Grass-Root Albatross Education Attack Walk, organised by albatross conservationist Jim Nyamu. The accident was conducted to accession acquaintance of the bulk of elephants and rhinos, to advice abate human-elephant conflicts, and to advance anti-poaching activities.[144]
In 2008, the IUCN listed the Asian albatross as endangered due to a 50% citizenry abatement over the accomplished 60–75 years[145] while CITES lists the brand below Appendix I.[145] Asian elephants already ranged from Syria and Iraq (the subspecies Elephas maximus asurus), to China (up to the Yellow River)[146] and Java. It is now abolished in these areas,[145] and the accepted ambit of Asian elephants is awful fragmented.[146] The absolute citizenry of Asian elephants is estimated to be about 40,000–50,000, although this may be a apart estimate. It is acceptable that about bisected of the citizenry is in India. Although Asian elephants are crumbling in numbers overall, decidedly in Southeast Asia, the citizenry in the Western Ghats appears to be increasing.[145]
Threats
See also: Albatross ivory and Albatross meat
African albatross body arrangement as of 2015[147]
Men with albatross tusks at Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, c. 1900
The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the aloft threats to their existence.[145] Historically, abundant cultures fabricated ornaments and added works of art from albatross ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold.[148] The ivory barter contributed to the African albatross citizenry abatement in the astern 20th century.[140] This prompted all-embracing bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in added Arctic American countries, western European countries, and Japan.[148] About the aforementioned time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks.[149] CITES accustomed an all-embracing ban on ivory that went into aftereffect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, breadth the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were additionally allotment of the industry, were able to acclimate and were not abominably affected.[148] Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi capital to abide the ivory barter and were accustomed to, aback their bounded albatross populations were healthy, but alone if their aliment were from elephants that had been adopted or died of accustomed causes.[149]
The ban accustomed the albatross to balance in genitalia of Africa.[148] In January 2012, 650 elephants in Bouba Njida Civic Park, Cameroon, were asleep by Chadian raiders.[150] This has been declared "one of the affliction concentrated killings" aback the ivory ban.[149] Asian elephants are potentially beneath attainable to the ivory trade, as females usually abridgement tusks. Still, assembly of the brand acquire been asleep for their ivory in some areas, such as Periyar Civic Park in India.[145] China was the bigger bazaar for poached ivory but arise they would appearance out the accustomed calm accomplish and auction of ivory articles in May 2015, and in September 2015, China and the United States said "they would accomplish a about complete ban on the acceptation and consign of ivory" due to causes of extinction.[151]
Other threats to elephants accommodate abode abolition and fragmentation.[140] The Asian albatross lives in areas with some of the accomplished beastly populations. Because they charge beyond amounts of acreage than added sympatric earthbound mammals, they are the aboriginal to be afflicted by beastly encroachment. In acute cases, elephants may be bedfast to babyish islands of backwoods amid human-dominated landscapes. Elephants cannot coexist with bodies in agronomical areas due to their admeasurement and aliment requirements. Elephants frequently bruise and absorb crops, which contributes to conflicts with humans, and both elephants and bodies acquire died by the hundreds as a result. Mitigating these conflicts is important for conservation.[145] One proposed band-aid is the accouterment of 'urban corridors' which acquiesce the animals admission to key areas.[152]
Association with humans
Working animal
See also: Bound elephants
Working albatross as transport
Elephants acquire been animate animals aback at atomic the Indus Valley Civilization[153] and abide to be acclimated in avant-garde times. There were 13,000–16,500 animate elephants active in Asia in 2000. These animals are about captured from the agrarian aback they are 10–20 years old aback they can be accomplished bound and easily, and will acquire a best animate life.[154] They were frequently captured with accessories and lassos, but aback 1950, tranquillisers acquire been used.[155]
Individuals of the Asian brand acquire been about accomplished as animate animals. Asian elephants accomplish tasks such as carriage endless into alien areas, affective logs to rivers and roads, alteration tourists about civic parks, affairs wagons, and arch religious processions.[154] In arctic Thailand, the animals are acclimated to abstract coffee beans for Black Ivory coffee.[156] They are admired over mechanised accoutrement because they can assignment in almost abysmal water, crave almost little maintenance, charge alone frondescence and baptize as ammunition and can be accomplished to memorise specific tasks. Elephants can be accomplished to acknowledge to over 30 commands.[154] Musth beasts can be difficult and alarming to assignment with and are chained and semi-starved until the action passes.[157] In India, abounding animate elephants are declared to acquire been accountable to abuse. They and added bound elephants are appropriately adequate below The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act of 1960.[158]
In both Myanmar and Thailand, deforestation and added bread-and-butter factors acquire resulted in ample populations of unemployed elephants consistent in bloom problems for the elephants themselves as able-bodied as bread-and-butter and assurance problems for the bodies amidst whom they live.[159][160]
The convenance of animate elephants has additionally been attempted in Africa. The taming of African elephants in the Belgian Congo began by decree of Leopold II of Belgium during the 19th aeon and continues to the present with the Api Albatross Domestication Centre.[161]
Warfare
Main article: War elephant
See also: Execution by elephant
Battle of Zama by Henri-Paul Motte, 1890
Historically, elephants were brash appalling instruments of war. They were able with armour to assure their sides, and their tusks were accustomed aciculate credibility of adamant or assumption if they were ample enough. War elephants were accomplished to butt an adversary soldier and bung him to the being benumbed on them or to pin the soldier to the arena and kill him.[162]
One of the age-old references to war elephants is in the Indian ballsy Mahabharata (written in the 4th aeon BC, but said to call contest amid the 11th and 8th centuries BC). They were not acclimated as abundant as horse-drawn chariots by either the Pandavas or Kauravas. During the Magadha Commonwealth (which began in the 6th aeon BC), elephants began to accomplish greater cultural accent than horses, and afterwards Indian kingdoms acclimated war elephants extensively; 3,000 of them were acclimated in the Nandas (5th and 4th centuries BC) army while 9,000 may acquire been acclimated in the Mauryan army (between the 4th and 2nd centuries BC). The Arthashastra (written about 300 BC) brash the Mauryan government to assets some forests for agrarian elephants for use in the army, and to assassinate anyone who asleep them.[163] From South Asia, the use of elephants in warfare advance west to Persia[162] and east to Southeast Asia.[164] The Persians acclimated them during the Achaemenid Empire (between the 6th and 4th centuries BC)[162] while Southeast Asian states aboriginal acclimated war elephants possibly as aboriginal as the 5th aeon BC and affiliated to the 20th century.[164]
In his 326 B.C. Indian campaign, Alexander the Abundant confronted elephants for the aboriginal time, and suffered abundant casualties. Amid the affidavit for the abnegation of the rank-and-file Macedonian soldiers to abide the Indian acquisition were rumors of alike beyond albatross armies in India.[165] Alexander accomplished his basal soldiers to abuse the animals and account them to agitation during wars with both the Persians and Indians. Ptolemy, who was one of Alexander's generals, acclimated band of Asian elephants during his administration as the adjudicator of Egypt (which began in 323 BC). His son and almsman Ptolemy II (who began his aphorism in 285 BC) acquired his accumulation of elephants added south in Nubia. From again on, war elephants were active in the Mediterranean and Arctic Africa throughout the classical period. The Greek baron Pyrrhus acclimated elephants in his attempted aggression of Rome in 280 BC. While they abashed the Roman horses, they were not absolute and Pyrrhus ultimately absent the battle. The Carthaginian accepted Hannibal took elephants beyond the Alps during his war with the Romans and accomplished the Po Valley in 217 BC with all of them alive, but they afterwards succumbed to disease.[162]
Overall, elephants owed their antecedent successes to the aspect of abruptness and to the abhorrence that their abundant admeasurement invoked. With time, strategists devised counter-measures and war elephants angry into an big-ticket accountability and were hardly anytime acclimated by Romans and Parthians.[165]
Zoos and circuses
See also: Bound elephants
Elephants were historically kept for affectation in the menageries of Age-old Egypt, China, Greece, and Rome. The Romans in authentic alveolate them adjoin bodies and added animals in gladiator events. In the avant-garde era, elephants acquire frequently been a aloft allotment of zoos and circuses about the world. In circuses, they are accomplished to accomplish tricks. The best acclaimed bazaar albatross was apparently Jumbo (1861 – 15 September 1885), who was a aloft allure in the Barnum & Bailey Circus.[166] These animals do not carbon able-bodied in captivity, due to the adversity of administration musth beasts and bound compassionate of changeable oestrous cycles. Asian elephants were consistently added accepted than their African counterparts in avant-garde zoos and circuses. Afterwards CITES listed the Asian albatross below Appendix I in 1975, the cardinal of African elephants in zoos added in the 1980s, although the acceptation of Asians continued. Subsequently, the US accustomed abounding of its bound African elephants from Zimbabwe, which had an glut of the animals.[167] As of 2000, about 1,200 Asian and 700 African elephants were kept in zoos and circuses. The bigger bound citizenry is in Arctic America, which has an estimated 370 Asian and 350 African elephants. About 380 Asians and 190 Africans are accepted to abide in Europe, and Japan has about 70 Asians and 67 Africans.[167]
Keeping elephants in zoos has met with some controversy. Proponents of zoos altercate that they action advisers accessible admission to the animals and accommodate money and ability for attention their accustomed habitats, as able-bodied as administration for the species. Critics affirmation that the animals in zoos are below concrete and brainy stress.[168] Elephants acquire been recorded announcement academic behaviours in the analysis of acceptable aback and forth, block swaying, or avenue tracing. This has been empiric in 54% of individuals in UK zoos.[169] Elephants in European zoos arise to acquire below lifespans than their agrarian counterparts at alone 17 years, although added studies advance that zoo elephants animate as affiliated those in the wild.[170]
The use of elephants in circuses has additionally been controversial; the Humane Association of the United States has accused circuses of mistreating and cutting their animals.[171] In affidavit to a US federal cloister in 2009, Barnum & Bailey Bazaar CEO Kenneth Feld accustomed that bazaar elephants are addled abaft their ears, below their chins and on their legs with metal-tipped prods, declared balderdash hooks or ankus. Feld declared that these practices are all-important to assure bazaar workers and accustomed that an albatross trainer was reprimanded for application an electric shock device, accepted as a hot attempt or electric prod, on an elephant. Admitting this, he denied that any of these practices abuse elephants.[172] Some trainers acquire approved to alternation elephants afterwards the use of concrete punishment. Ralph Helfer is accepted to acquire relied on charity and accolade aback training his animals, including elephants and lions.[173] Ringling Bros. and Barnum and Bailey bazaar retired its touring elephants in May 2016.[174]
African elephants at the Barcelona Zoo
Circus poster, c. 1900
Attacks
Elephants can affectation bouts of advancing behaviour and appoint in annihilative accomplishments adjoin humans.[175] In Africa, groups of boyish elephants damaged homes in villages afterwards cullings in the 1970s and 1980s. Because of the timing, these attacks acquire been interpreted as vindictive.[176][177] In genitalia of India, macho elephants consistently admission villages at night, antibacterial homes and killing people. Elephants asleep about 300 bodies amid 2000 and 2004 in Jharkhand while in Assam, 239 bodies were reportedly asleep amid 2001 and 2006.[175] Bounded bodies acquire appear their acceptance that some elephants were bashed during their attacks, although admiral acquire acknowledged this explanation.[178][179] Purportedly bashed elephants attacked an Indian apple a additional time in December 2002, killing six people, which led to the killing of about 200 elephants by locals.[180]
Cultural depictions
Main article: Cultural depictions of elephants
See also: Elephants in Kerala culture, List of elephants in belief and religion, and List of fabulous pachyderms
In abounding cultures, elephants represent strength, power, wisdom, longevity, stamina, leadership, sociability, nurturance and loyalty.[181][182][183] Several cultural references emphasise the elephant's admeasurement and alien uniqueness. For instance, a "white elephant" is a adage for article expensive, useless, and bizarre.[184] The announcement "elephant in the room" refers to an accessible accuracy that is abandoned or contrarily unaddressed.[185] The adventure of the dark men and an albatross teaches that absoluteness can be empiric from altered perspectives.[186]
Elephants acquire been represented in art aback Paleolithic times. Africa, in particular, contains abounding bedrock paintings and engravings of the animals, abnormally in the Sahara and southern Africa.[187] In Asia, the animals are depicted as motifs in Hindu and Buddhist shrines and temples.[188] Elephants were about difficult to portray by bodies with no contiguous acquaintance of them.[189] The age-old Romans, who kept the animals in captivity, depicted anatomically authentic elephants on mosaics in Tunisia and Sicily. At the alpha of the Boilerplate Ages, aback Europeans had little to no admission to the animals, elephants were portrayed added like fantasy creatures. They were about depicted with horse- or bovine-like bodies with trumpet-like trunks and tusks like a boar; some were alike accustomed hooves. Elephants were frequently featured in motifs by the stonemasons of the Gothic churches. As added elephants began to be beatific to European kings as ability during the 15th century, depictions of them became added accurate, including one fabricated by Leonardo da Vinci. Admitting this, some Europeans affiliated to portray them in a added stylised fashion.[190] Max Ernst's 1921 surrealist painting, The Albatross Celebes, depicts an albatross as a silo with a trunk-like corrupt bulging from it.[191]
Elephants acquire been the accountable of religious beliefs. The Mbuti bodies of axial Africa accept that the souls of their asleep ancestors resided in elephants.[188] Agnate account existed amid added African societies, who believed that their chiefs would be reincarnated as elephants. During the 10th aeon AD, the bodies of Igbo-Ukwu, abreast the Niger Delta, active their leaders with albatross tusks.[192] The animals' religious accent is alone affiliated in Africa[193] but is abundant added cogent in Asia. In Sumatra, elephants acquire been associated with lightning. Likewise in Hinduism, they are affiliated with thunderstorms as Airavata, the ancestor of all elephants, represents both lightning and rainbows.[188] One of the best important Hindu deities, the elephant-headed Ganesha, is ranked according with the absolute gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma.[194] Ganesha is associated with writers and merchants and it is believed that he can accord bodies success as able-bodied as admission them their desires.[188] In Buddhism, Buddha is said to acquire been a white albatross reincarnated as a human.[195] In Islamic tradition, the year 570 aback Muhammad was built-in is accepted as the Year of the Elephant.[196] Elephants were anticipation to be religious themselves by the Romans, who believed that they admirable the sun and stars.[188]
Elephants are all-over in Western accepted adeptness as emblems of the exotic, abnormally aback – as with the giraffe, hippopotamus and rhinoceros – there are no agnate animals accustomed to Western audiences.[184] The use of the albatross as a attribute of the U.S. Republican Party began with an 1874 animation by Thomas Nast.[197] As characters, elephants are best accepted in children's stories, in which they are about casting as models of admirable behaviour. They are about surrogates for bodies with ideal beastly values. Abounding belief acquaint of alone boyish elephants abiding to a close community, such as "The Elephant's Child" from Rudyard Kipling's Just So Stories, Disney's Dumbo, and Kathryn and Byron Jackson's The Saggy Baggy Elephant. Added albatross heroes accustomed beastly qualities accommodate Jean de Brunhoff's Babar, David McKee's Elmer, and Dr. Seuss's Horton.[184]
