Grammar

In linguistics, grammar (from Age-old Greek γραμματική) is the set of structural rules administering the agreement of clauses, phrases and words in a accustomed language. The appellation refers additionally to the abstraction of such rules and this acreage includes phonology, assay and syntax, generally complemented by phonetics, semantics and pragmatics.

Fluent speakers of a emphasis array or lect accept a set of internalized rules which constitutes its grammar.[1] The all-inclusive majority of the admonition in the grammar is – at atomic in the case of one's built-in emphasis – acquired not by acquainted abstraction or apprenticeship but by audition added speakers. Much of this assignment is done during aboriginal childhood; acquirements a emphasis after in activity usually involves added complete instruction.[2] Thus, grammar is the cerebral admonition basal emphasis use.

The appellation "grammar" can additionally call the rules which administer the linguistic behavior of a accumulation of speakers. For example, the appellation "English grammar" may accredit to the accomplished of English grammar; that is, to the grammars of all the speakers of the language, in which case the appellation encompasses a abundant accord of variation.[3] Alternatively, it may accredit alone to what is accustomed to the grammars of all or best English speakers (such as subject–verb–object chat adjustment in simple allegorical sentences). It may additionally accredit to the rules of one about categorical anatomy of English (such as accustomed English for a region).

A description, study, or assay of such rules may additionally be referred to as a grammar. A advertence book anecdotic the grammar of a emphasis is alleged a "reference grammar" or artlessly "a grammar" (see History of English grammars). A absolutely complete grammar which absolutely describes the grammatical constructions of a accurate emphasis array is alleged a anecdotic grammar. This affectionate of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription, an attack to actively abash or abolish some grammatical constructions, while codifying and announcement others, either in an complete faculty or about a accustomed variety. For example, some prescriptivists advance that sentences in English should not end with prepositions, a prohibition that has been traced to John Dryden (13 April 1668 – January 1688) whose alien argument to the convenance conceivably led added English speakers to abstain the architecture and abash its use.[4][5] Yet preposition stranding has a continued history in Germanic languages like English, area it is so boundless as to be a accustomed usage.

Outside linguistics, the appellation grammar is generally acclimated in a rather altered sense. It may be acclimated added broadly to accommodate conventions of spelling and punctuation, which linguists would not about accede as allotment of grammar but rather as allotment of orthography, the conventions acclimated for autograph a language. It may additionally be acclimated added about to accredit to a set of accustomed norms only, excluding those aspects of a language's grammar which are not accountable to aberration or agitation on their normative acceptability. Jeremy Butterfield claimed that, for non-linguists, "Grammar is generally a all-encompassing way of apropos to any aspect of English that bodies commodity to."[6] Etymology

The chat grammar is acquired from Greek γραμματικὴ τέχνη (grammatikē technē), which agency "art of letters", from γράμμα (gramma), "letter", itself from γράφειν (graphein), "to draw, to write".[7] The aforementioned Greek base additionally appears in graphics, grapheme, and photograph.
History
Further information: History of linguistics

The aboriginal analytical grammar, of Sanskrit, originated in Iron Age India, with Yaska (6th aeon BC), Pāṇini (6th–5th aeon BC[8]) and his commentators Pingala (c. 200 BC), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd aeon BC). Tolkāppiyam, the age-old Tamil grammar, is mostly anachronous to afore the 5th aeon AD. The Babylonians additionally fabricated some aboriginal attempts at emphasis description.[9]

Grammar appeared as a conduct in Hellenism from the 3rd aeon BC avant-garde with authors such as Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace. The oldest accustomed grammar handbook is the Art of Grammar (Τέχνη Γραμματική), a blunt adviser to speaking and autograph acutely and effectively, accounting by the age-old Greek bookish Dionysius Thrax (c. 170–c. 90 BC), a apprentice of Aristarchus of Samothrace who founded a academy on the Greek island of Rhodes.[10] Dionysius Thrax's grammar book remained the primary grammar arbiter for Greek schoolboys until as backward as the twelfth aeon AD.[10] The Romans based their grammatical writings on it and its basal architecture charcoal the base for grammar guides in abounding languages alike today.[10] Latin grammar developed by afterward Greek models from the 1st aeon BC, due to the assignment of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius Asper.

A grammar of Irish originated in the 7th aeon with the Auraicept na n-Éces. Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali in the 7th century. The aboriginal treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High Middle Ages, in the ambience of Mishnah (exegesis of the Hebrew Bible). The Karaite attitude originated in Abbasid Baghdad. The Diqduq (10th century) is one of the age-old grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.[11] Ibn Barun in the 12th aeon compares the Hebrew emphasis with Arabic in the Islamic grammatical tradition.[12]

Belonging to the trivium of the seven avant-garde arts, grammar was accomplished as a amount conduct throughout the Middle Ages, afterward the access of authors from Backward Antiquity, such as Priscian. Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle Ages, with abandoned works such as the Aboriginal Grammatical Treatise, but became affecting alone in the Renaissance and Baroque periods. In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija appear Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el affair al Latin, and the aboriginal Spanish grammar, Gramática de la lengua castellana, in 1492. During the 16th-century Italian Renaissance, the Questione della lingua was the altercation on the cachet and ideal anatomy of the Italian language, accomplished by Dante's de vulgari eloquentia (Pietro Bembo, Prose della volgar lingua Venice 1525). The aboriginal grammar of Slovene was accounting in 1583 by Adam Bohorič.

Grammars of some languages began to be aggregate for the purposes of cause and Bible adaptation from the 16th aeon onward, such as Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de los Indios de los Reynos del Perú (1560), a Quechua grammar by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás.

From the closing allotment of the 18th century, grammar came to be accustomed as a subfield of the arising conduct of avant-garde linguistics. The Deutsche Grammatik of the Jacob Grimm was aboriginal appear in the 1810s. The Allusive Grammar of Franz Bopp, the starting point of avant-garde allusive linguistics, came out in 1833.
Theoretical frameworks
Further information: Syntax § Theories
A abundant anatomize tree: the book is disconnected into a noun byword (subject), and a verb byword which includes the object. This is in adverse to structural and anatomic grammar which accede the accountable and commodity as according constituents.[13][14]

Frameworks of grammar which seek to accord a absolute accurate approach of the syntactic rules of grammar and their action accept been developed in abstract linguistics.
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    Anatomic grammar (structural–functional analysis):
        Danish Functionalism
        Anatomic Discourse Grammar
        Systemic anatomic grammar
        Role and advertence grammar
    Annex grammar: annex affiliation (Lucien Tesnière 1959)
        Link grammar
    Montague grammar

Other frameworks are based on an congenital "universal grammar", an abstraction developed by Noam Chomsky. In such models, the commodity is placed into the verb phrase. The best arresting biologically-oriented theories are:

    Abundant grammar:
        Transformational grammar (1960s)
        Abundant semantics (1970s)
            Semantic Syntax (1990s)
        Generalised byword anatomy grammar (late 1970s)
            Head-driven byword anatomy grammar (1985)
            Principles and ambit grammar (Government and bounden theory) (1980s)
        Lexical anatomic grammar
        Categorial grammar (lambda calculus)
        Minimalist program-based grammar (1993)
    Cerebral grammar / Cerebral linguistics
        Architecture grammar
            Fluid Architecture Grammar
        Chat grammar
    Stochastic grammar: probabilistic
        Operator grammar

Parse copse are frequently acclimated by such frameworks to characterize their rules. There are assorted addition schemes for some grammars:

    Constraint grammar
    Tree-adjoining grammar
    Affix grammar over a bound lattice
    Lambda calculus
    X-bar theory
    Backus–Naur form

Development of grammars
   
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Main articles: Historical linguistics and History of English grammars

Grammars advance through acceptance and additionally due to separations of the animal population. With the appearance of accounting representations, bookish rules about emphasis acceptance tend to appear also. Bookish grammars are codifications of acceptance which are developed by again affidavit and ascertainment over time. As rules are accustomed and developed, the accustomed abstraction of grammatical definiteness can arise. This generally produces a alterity amid abreast acceptance and that which has been accepted, over time, as actuality accustomed or "correct". Linguists tend to appearance accustomed grammars as accepting little absolution aloft their authors' artful tastes, although appearance guides may accord advantageous admonition about accustomed emphasis employment, based on descriptions of acceptance in abreast writings of the aforementioned language. Linguistic prescriptions additionally anatomy allotment of the annual for aberration in speech, decidedly aberration in the emphasis of an alone apostle (for example, why some speakers say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the added depending on amusing context).

The bookish abstraction of grammar is an important allotment of children's ancestry from a adolescent age through avant-garde learning, admitting the rules accomplished in schools are not a "grammar" in the faculty that best linguists use, decidedly as they are accustomed in absorbed rather than descriptive.

Constructed languages (also alleged planned languages or conlangs) are added accustomed in the modern-day, although still acutely aberrant compared to accustomed languages. Abounding accept been advised to aid animal advice (for example, naturalistic Interlingua, schematic Esperanto, and the awful logic-compatible bogus emphasis Lojban). Each of these languages has its own grammar.

Syntax refers to the linguistic anatomy aloft the chat akin (for example, how sentences are formed) – admitting after demography into annual intonation, which is the area of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to the anatomy at and beneath the chat akin (for example, how admixture words are formed), but aloft the akin of alone sounds, which, like intonation, are in the area of phonology.[15] However, no bright band can be fatigued amid syntax and morphology. Analytic languages use syntax to back admonition which is encoded by articulation in constructed languages. In added words, chat adjustment is not cogent and assay is awful cogent in a absolutely constructed language, admitting assay is not cogent and syntax is awful cogent in an analytic language. For example, Chinese and Afrikaans are awful analytic, appropriately acceptation is actual context-dependent. (Both accept some inflections, and both accept had added in the past; thus, they are acceptable alike beneath constructed and added "purely" analytic over time.) Latin, which is awful synthetic, uses affixes and inflections to back the aforementioned admonition that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are absolutely (though not totally) self-contained, an apprehensible Latin book can be fabricated from elements that are abiding about arbitrarily. Latin has a circuitous affixation and simple syntax, admitting Chinese has the opposite.
Education

Prescriptive grammar is accomplished in primary and accessory school. The appellation "grammar school" historically refers to a academy (attached to a basilica or monastery) that teaches Latin grammar to approaching priests and monks. In its age-old form, "grammar school" referred to a academy that accomplished acceptance how to read, scan, interpret, and attack Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and others). These should not be mistaken for the related, admitting distinct, avant-garde British grammar schools.

A accustomed emphasis is the emphasis which is answer aloft added dialects in writing, apprenticeship and, broadly speaking, in the accessible sphere; it contrasts with colloquial dialects, which may be the altar of abstraction in academic, anecdotic linguistics but which are rarely accomplished prescriptively. The connected "first language" accomplished in primary apprenticeship may be accountable to political controversy, because it may sometimes authorize a accustomed defining allegiance or ethnicity.

Recently, efforts accept amorphous to amend grammar apprenticeship in primary and accessory education. The basic focus has been to anticipate the use of anachronous accustomed rules in favor of ambience norms based on beforehand anecdotic analysis and to change perceptions about about "correctness" of assigned accustomed forms in allegory to non-standard dialects.

The accolade of Parisian French has reigned abundantly advisedly throughout the history of avant-garde French literature. Accustomed Italian is not based on the emphasis of the capital, Rome, but on the emphasis of Florence because of the access Florentines had on aboriginal Italian literature. Likewise, accustomed Spanish is not based on the emphasis of Madrid, but on that of accomplished speakers from added arctic areas such as Castile and León (see Gramática de la lengua castellana). In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish accustomed is based on the bounded dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo (Rioplatense Spanish). Portuguese has, for now, two official standards, appropriately Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese.

The Serbian alternative of Serbo-Croatian is additionally divided; Serbia and the Republika Srpska of Bosnia and Herzegovina use their own audible normative subvarieties, with differences in yat reflexes. The actuality and allocation of a audible Montenegrin accustomed is a amount of controversy, some amusement Montenegrin as a abstracted accustomed lect and some anticipate that it should be advised addition anatomy of Serbian.

Norwegian has two standards, Bokmål and Nynorsk, the best amid which is accountable to controversy: Each Norwegian city can either acknowledge one as its official emphasis or it can abide "language neutral". Nynorsk is backed by 27 percent of municipalities. The basic emphasis acclimated in primary schools, called by election aural the bounded academy district, commonly follows the official emphasis of its municipality. Accustomed German emerged from the connected chancellery use of High German in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it was about alone a accounting language, but now it is so broadly announced that best of the above German dialects are about extinct.

Standard Chinese has official cachet as the accustomed announced anatomy of the Chinese emphasis in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC) and the Republic of Singapore. Pronunciation of Accustomed Chinese is based on the bounded emphasis of Mandarin Chinese from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province abreast Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on avant-garde colloquial accounting Chinese.

Modern Accustomed Arabic is anon based on Classical Arabic, the emphasis of the Qur'an. The Hindustani emphasis has two standards, Hindi and Urdu.

In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar appointed March 4th as National Grammar Day in 2008.[16]