Jainism

Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/),[1] frequently accustomed as Jain Dharma, is an age-old Indian religion. Jain dharma traces its airy account and history through a assumption of twenty-four leaders or tirthankaras,[2] with the aboriginal actuality Rishabhanatha or additionally accustomed as Adinath bhagwan of this era, whom the Jain attitude holds to acquire lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha whom historians date to 8th or 7th aeon BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara, Mahāvīra about 500 BCE. Jains acquire that Jainism is an abiding dharma with the tirthankaras allegorical every aeon of the Jain cosmology.

The basic religious bounds of the Jain dharma are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (many-sidedness), aparigraha (non-attachment) and abnegation (abstinence from beastly pleasures). Devout Jains booty bristles basic vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (sexual continence), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These attempt acquire afflicted Jain adeptness in abounding ways, such as arch to a predominantly vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho Jīvānām (the activity of souls is to advice one another) is its adage and the Ṇamōkāra mantra is its best accustomed and basal prayer.

Jain dharma is one of the world's oldest religions and has two above age-old sub-traditions, Digambaras and Śvētāmbaras, with altered angle on abstinent practices, gender and which texts can be advised canonical; both acquire mendicants accurate by laypersons (śrāvakas and śrāvikas). The adoration has amid four and bristles actor followers, mostly in India. Alfresco India, some of the bigger communities are in Canada, Europe, and the Affiliated States. Jain Dharma is growing in Japan, breadth added than 5,000 indigenous Japanese families acquire acclimatized to Jainism. Above festivals accommodate Paryushana and Daslakshana, Ashtanika, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, and Dipawali.

Beliefs and philosophy

Main article: Jain philosophy

Jainism is transtheistic and forecasts that the cosmos evolves afterwards actionable the law of actuality dualism,[3] auto accomplished through the average arena amid the attempt of accompaniment and interactionism.[4]

Dravya (Substance)

Main article: Dravya

Dravya agency substances or article in Sanskrit.[5] According to Jain philosophy, the cosmos is fabricated up of six abiding substances: acquainted beings or souls (jīva), non-sentient actuality or amount (pudgala), assumption of motion (dharma), the assumption of blow (adharma), amplitude (ākāśa) and time (kāla).[6][5] The closing bristles are affiliated as the ajiva (the non-living).[5] Jain philosophers analyze a actuality from a body, or thing, by declaring the above a simple abiding element, while the closing is a compound, fabricated of one or added substances, which can be destroyed.[7]

Tattva (Reality)

Main article: Tattva (Jainism)

Tattva connotes absoluteness or accuracy in Jain philosophy, and is the framework for salvation. According to Digambara Jains, there are seven tattvas: the acquainted (jiva); the apathetic (ajiva); the karmic arrival to the anatomy (Āsrava); chains of karmic particles to the anatomy (Bandha);[8][9] abeyance of karmic particles (Saṃvara); wiping abroad of accomplished karmic particles (Nirjarā); and liberation (Moksha). Śvētāmbaras add two added tattvas, namely acceptable afterlife (Punya) and bad afterlife (Paap).[10][11][12] The accurate acumen in Jain aesthetics is advised as "faith in the tattvas".[11] The airy ambition in Jainism is to adeptness moksha for ascetics, but for best Jain laypersons it is to accumulate acceptable afterlife that leads to bigger activation and a footfall afterpiece to liberation.[13][14]

Soul and karma

Main article: Afterlife in Jainism

Classification of Saṃsāri Jīvas (transmigrating souls) in Jainism

According to Jainism, the actuality of "a apprenticed and anytime alteration soul" is a apparent truth, an adage which does not charge to be proven.[15] It maintains that there are abundant souls, but every one of them has three qualities (Guṇa): alertness (caitanya, the best important), beatitude (sukha) and vibrational activity (virya).[16] It added claims that the beating draws karmic particles to the anatomy and creates bondages, but is additionally what adds arete or bankrupt to the soul.[16] Jain texts accompaniment that souls abide as "clothed with actual bodies", breadth it absolutely fills up the body.[17] Karma, as in added Indian religions, connotes in Jainism the accustomed account and aftereffect law. However, it is envisioned as a actual actuality (subtle matter) that can bind to the soul, biking with the anatomy in apprenticed anatomy amid rebirths, and affect the adversity and beatitude accomplished by the jiva in the lokas.[18] Afterlife is believed to abstruse and arrest the congenital attributes and appetite of the soul, as able-bodied as its airy abeyant in the abutting rebirth.[19]

Saṃsāra

Main articles: Saṃsāra (Jainism) and Vitalism (Jainism)

The conceptual framework of the Saṃsāra article differs amid Jainism and added Indian religions. Anatomy (jiva) is accustomed as a truth, as in Hinduism but not Buddhism. The aeon of rebirths has a audible alpha and end in Jainism.[20] Jain acumen asserts that ceremony anatomy passes through 8,400,000 birth-situations as they amphitheater through Saṃsāra,[21][22] activity through bristles types of bodies: apple bodies, baptize bodies, blaze bodies, air bodies and vegetable lives, consistently alteration with all beastly and non-human activities from condensate to breathing.[23] Harming any activity anatomy is a sin in Jainism, with abrogating karmic effects.[24][25] Jainism states that souls activate in a basal state, and either advance to a academy accompaniment or backslide if apprenticed by their karma.[26] It added clarifies that abhavya (incapable) souls can never attain moksha (liberation).[20][27] It explains that the abhavya accompaniment is entered afterwards an advised and shockingly angry act.[28] Souls can be acceptable or angry in Jainism, clashing the nondualism of some forms of Hinduism and Buddhism.[27] According to Jainism, a Siddha (liberated soul) has gone above Saṃsāra, is at the apex, is omniscient, and charcoal there eternally.[29]

Cosmology

Main article: Jain cosmology

Rebirth loka (realms of existence) in Jain cosmology.[30]

Division of time in Jain cosmology.

Jain texts advertise that the cosmos consists of abounding abiding lokas (realms of existence). As in Buddhism and Hinduism, both time and the cosmos are eternal, but the cosmos is transient.[31][32] The universe, body, amount and time are advised abstracted from the anatomy (jiva). Their alternation explains life, living, afterlife and activation in Jain philosophy.[32] The Jain catholic cosmos has three parts, the upper, middle, and lower worlds (urdhva loka, madhya loka, and adho loka).[33] Jainism states that Kāla (time) is afterwards alpha and eternal;[34] the catholic caster of time, kālachakra, rotates ceaselessly. In this allotment of the universe, it explains, there are six periods of time aural two eons (ara), and in the aboriginal eon the cosmos generates, and in the abutting it degenerates.[35] Thus, it divides the carnal aeon of time into two half-cycles, utsarpiṇī (ascending, accelerating abundance and happiness) and avasarpiṇī (descending, accretion affliction and immorality).[34][36][37] It states that the apple is currently in the fifth ara of avasarpiṇī, abounding of affliction and religious decline, breadth the acme of alive beings shrinks. According to Jainism, afterwards the sixth ara, the cosmos will be reawakened in a new cycle.[38][39][40]

God

Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras, Jaipur, c. 1850

Main article: God in Jainism

Jainism is a transtheistic religion,[41] captivation that the cosmos was not created, and will abide forever.[31] It is believed to be independent, accepting no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.[32][42] In this, it is clashing the Abrahamic religions, but agnate to Buddhism.[43] However, Jainism believes in the apple of gods and hell beings who are born, die and reborn like alluvial beings.[44][45] Jain texts advance that souls who alive appropriately in the anatomy of a god do so because of their complete karma.[46] It is added declared that they acquire a added complete adeptness about actual things and can ahead contest in the beastly realms.[46] However, already their accomplished karmic arete is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn afresh as humans, animals or added beings.[46][47] In Jainism, complete souls with a anatomy are alleged arihant (victors) and complete souls afterwards a anatomy are alleged Siddhas (liberated souls).[29][48][41]

Epistemology

Main article: Jain epistemology

Jain aesthetics accepts three reliable agency of adeptness (pramana). It holds that actual adeptness is based on acumen (pratyaksa), inference (anumana) and affidavit (sabda or the chat of scriptures).[49][50] These account are abundant in Jain texts such as Tattvarthasūtra, Parvacanasara, Nandi and Anuyogadvarini.[51][50] Some Jain texts add affinity (upamana) as the fourth reliable means, in a address agnate to epistemological theories begin in added Indian religions.[52] In Jainism, jnāna (knowledge) is said to be of bristles kinds – Kevala Jnana (Omniscience), Śrutu Jñāna (Scriptural Knowledge), Mati Jñāna (Sensory Knowledge), Avadhi Jñāna (Clairvoyance), and Manah prayāya Jñāna (Telepathy).[53] According to the Jain argument Tattvartha sūtra, the aboriginal two are aberrant adeptness and the actual three are complete knowledge.[54]

Salvation, liberation

Main articles: Moksha (Jainism), Ratnatraya, and Gunasthana

The three shikhar (top) of a Jain temple represents Ratnatraya (three jewels)

According to Jainism, ablution of anatomy and liberation can be accomplished through the aisle of three jewels:[54][55][56] Samyak darśana (Correct View), acceptation faith, accepting of the accuracy of anatomy (jīva);[57] Samyak gyana (Correct Knowledge), acceptation assertive adeptness of the tattvas;[58] and Samyak charitra (Correct Conduct), acceptation behavior connected with the Bristles vows.[58] Jain texts about add samyak tap (Correct Asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing acceptance in abstinent practices as the agency to liberation (moksha).[59] The four jewels are alleged moksha marg (the aisle of liberation).[55]

Main principles

Non-violence (ahimsa)

Main article: Ahimsa in Jainism

Relief apery ahimsa

The assumption of ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) is a axiological assumption of Jainism.[60] It holds that one charge carelessness all agitated activity and that afterwards such a charge to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.[60] In Jain theology, it does not amount how actual or condonable the carelessness may be, one charge not annihilate or abuse any being, and non-violence is the accomplished religious duty.[60][61] Jain texts such as Acaranga Sūtra and Tattvarthasūtra accompaniment that one charge abdicate all killing of alive beings, whether tiny or large, adaptable or immovable.[62][63] Its assize teaches that one charge neither annihilate addition alive being, nor account addition to kill, nor accord to any killing anon or indirectly.[62][61] Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence adjoin all beings not alone in activity but additionally in accent and in thought.[62][63] It states that instead of abhorrence or carelessness adjoin anyone, "all alive creatures charge advice ceremony other".[63][a] Jains acquire that carelessness abnormally affects and destroys one's soul, decidedly aback the carelessness is done with intent, abhorrence or carelessness, or aback one alongside causes or consents to the killing of a beastly or non-human alive being.[63]

The article exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is best awful developed in Jainism.[60][65][66][67][68] The apostolic base of non-violence as the accomplished religious assignment has been interpreted by some Jain advisers not to "be apprenticed by arete from giving or benevolence to added creatures, nor a assignment to accomplishment all creatures", but consistent from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the anatomy that leads to one's own airy development which ultimately affects one's conservancy and absolution from rebirths.[69] Jains acquire that causing abrasion to any actuality in any anatomy creates bad afterlife which affects one's rebirth, approaching able-bodied actuality and causes suffering.[70][71]

Late medieval Jain advisers re-examined the Ahiṃsā article aback faced with alien blackmail or violence. For example, they justified carelessness by monks to assure nuns.[72][73] According to Dundas, the Jain academic Jinadattasuri wrote during a time of Muslim abolition of temples and animality that "anybody affianced in a religious activity who was affected to activity and annihilate somebody would not lose any airy arete but instead attain deliverance".[74] However, examples in Jain texts that disregard angry and killing beneath assertive affairs are almost rare.[72][b]

Many-sided absoluteness (anekāntavāda)

Main article: Anekāntavāda

Jain temple painting acknowledgment Anekantavada with Blind men and an elephant

The additional basic assumption of Jainism is anekāntavāda,[76][77] from anekānta ("many-sidedness") and vada ("doctrine").[76][77] The article states that accuracy and absoluteness are circuitous and consistently acquire assorted aspects. It added states that absoluteness can be experienced, but cannot be absolutely bidding with language. It suggests that beastly attempts to acquaint are Naya, "partial announcement of the truth".[76] According to it, one can acquaintance the aftertaste of truth, but cannot absolutely accurate that aftertaste through language. It holds that attempts to accurate acquaintance are syāt, or accurate "in some respect", but abide "perhaps, aloof one perspective, incomplete".[78] It concludes that in the aforementioned way, airy truths can be accomplished but not absolutely expressed.[76] It suggests that the abundant absurdity is acceptance in ekānta (one-sidedness), breadth some about accuracy is advised as absolute.[79] The article is ancient, begin in Buddhist texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta. The Jain Agamas advance that Mahāvīra's admission to answering all abstract abstract questions was a "qualified yes" (syāt).[80][81] These texts analyze anekāntavāda as a key aberration from the Buddha's teachings. The Buddha accomplished the Average Way, abnegation extremes of the acknowledgment "it is" or "it is not" to abstract questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, accomplished his followers to acquire both "it is", and "it is not", able with "perhaps", to acquire Complete Reality.[82] The abiding actuality is conceptualized as jiva (soul) and ajiva (matter) aural a bifold anekāntavāda framework.[83]

According to Paul Dundas, in abreast times the anekāntavāda article has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a accustomed religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to added [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of actual texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.[84] According to him, the "many pointedness, assorted perspective" article of the Mahāvīra is about the attributes of complete absoluteness and beastly existence.[85] He claims that it is not about accommodating activities such as killing animals for food, nor carelessness adjoin disbelievers or any added alive actuality as "perhaps right".[84] The bristles vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are austere requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.[86] Similarly, aback age-old times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the adeptness systems and behavior of these traditions, and carnality versa.[87]

Non-attachment (aparigraha)

Main article: Aparigraha

The third basic assumption in Jainism is aparigraha which agency non-attachment to carnal possessions.[88] For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.[89] The abstinent is a abnormality mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a citizen mendicant in the Śvētāmbara tradition.[89] For Jain laypersons, it recommends apprenticed ascendancy of acreage that has been candidly earned, and giving balance acreage to charity.[88] According to Natubhai Shah, aparigraha applies to both the actual and the psychic. Actual backing accredit to assorted forms of property. Analytic backing accredit to emotions, brand and dislikes, and accessories of any form. Unchecked adapter to backing is said to aftereffect in complete abuse to one's personality.[90]

Jain belief and bristles vows

Main article: Belief of Jainism

See also: Yamas § Bristles Yamas

Nishidhi stone, depicting the vow of sallekhana, 14th century, Karnataka

Jainism teaches bristles ethical duties, which it calls bristles vows. These are alleged anuvratas (small vows) for Jain laypersons, and mahavratas (great vows) for Jain mendicants.[91] For both, its moral precepts beginning that the Jain has admission to a ascendancy (teacher, counsellor), deva (Jina, god), doctrine, and that the alone is chargeless from bristles offences: doubts about the faith, averseness about the truths of Jainism, aboveboard account for Jain teachings, acceptance of adolescent Jains, and account for their airy pursuits.[92] Such a actuality undertakes the afterward Bristles vows of Jainism:

Ahiṃsā, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":[92] The aboriginal above vow taken by Jains is to account no abuse to added beastly beings, as able-bodied as all alive beings (particularly animals).[92] This is the accomplished ethical assignment in Jainism, and it applies not alone to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's accent and thoughts.[93][94]

Satya, "truth": This vow is to consistently allege the truth. Neither lie, nor allege what is not true, and do not animate others or acquire anyone who speaks an untruth.[93][91]

Asteya, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not booty annihilation that is not agreeably given.[92][95] Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to booty it if article is actuality given.[96]

Brahmacharya, "celibacy": Abnegation from sex and beastly pleasures is assigned for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow agency chastity, adherence to one's partner.[93][91]

Aparigraha, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to actual and cerebral possessions, alienated appetite and greed.[91] Jain monks and nuns absolutely abdicate acreage and amusing relations, own annihilation and are absorbed to no one.[88][97]

Jainism prescribes seven added vows, including three guņa vratas (merit vows) and four śikşā vratas.[98][99] The Sallekhana (or Santhara) vow is a "religious death" ritual empiric at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but attenuate in the avant-garde age.[100] In this vow, there is free and bit-by-bit abridgement of aliment and aqueous assimilation to end one's activity by best and with dispassion,[101][102] This is believed to abate abrogating afterlife that affects a soul's approaching rebirths.[103]

Practices

Asceticism and monasticism

Main articles: Abnegation and Jain monasticism

Digambara monk

Śvētāmbara-Deravasi monk

A Śvētāmbara nun (early 20th-century)

A Digambara nun

Of the above Indian religions, Jainism has had the arch abstinent tradition.[104][105][106] Abstinent activity may accommodate nakedness, emblematic non-possession alike of clothes, fasting, anatomy mortification, and penance, to bake abroad accomplished afterlife and stop bearing new karma, both of which are believed basic for extensive siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").[104][107][108]

Jain texts like Tattvartha Sūtra and Uttaradhyayana Sūtra altercate austerities in detail. Six alien and six abutting practices are around-the-clock in afterwards Jain texts.[109] Alien austerities accommodate complete fasting, bistro apprenticed amounts, bistro belted items, abnegation from appetizing foods, awkward the flesh, and attention the beef (avoiding annihilation that is a antecedent of temptation).[110] Abutting austerities accommodate expiation, confession, apropos and acceptable mendicants, studying, meditation, and blank actual wants in adjustment to carelessness the body.[110] Lists of centralized and alien austerities alter with the argument and tradition.[111][112] Abnegation is beheld as a agency to ascendancy desires, and to absolve the jiva (soul).[106] The tirthankaras such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an archetype by assuming astringent austerities for twelve years.[113][114][115]

Monastic organization, sangh, has a four-fold adjustment consisting of sadhu (male ascetics, muni), sadhvi (female ascetics, aryika), śrāvaka (laymen), and śrāvikā (laywomen). The closing two abutment the ascetics and their apostolic organizations alleged gacch or samuday, in free bounded Jain congregations.[116][117][118] Jain apostolic rules acquire encouraged the use of aperture cover, as able-bodied as the Dandasan – a continued stick with woolen accoutrement – to acclaim abolish all-overs and insects that may arise in their path.[119][120][121]

Food and fasting

Main articles: Jain vegetarianism and Abnegation in Jainism

The convenance of non-violence arise all alive beings has led to Jain adeptness actuality vegetarian. Devout Jains convenance lacto-vegetarianism, acceptation that they eat no eggs, but acquire dairy articles if there is no carelessness adjoin animals during their production. Veganism is encouraged if there are apropos about beastly welfare.[122] Jain monks, nuns and some followers abstain basis vegetables such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny bacilli are afflicted aback the ball is pulled up, and because a ball or tuber's adeptness to sprout is apparent as appropriate of a academy alive being.[123][c] Jain monks and avant-garde laypeople abstain bistro afterwards sunset, celebratory a vow of ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata.[124] Digambara monks beam a stricter vow by bistro alone already a day.[124]

Jains fast decidedly during festivals.[125] This convenance is alleged upavasa, tapasya or vrata,[126] and may be accomplished according to one's ability.[127] Digambaras fast for Dasa-laksana-parvan, bistro alone one or two commons per day, bubbler alone above baptize for ten days, or abnegation absolutely on the aboriginal and aftermost canicule of the festival,[128] artful the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.[128] Śvētāmbara Jains do analogously in the eight day paryusana with samvatsari-pratikramana.[129] The convenance is believed to abolish afterlife from one's anatomy and provides arete (punya).[125] A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at dusk afore the day of the fast and catastrophe 48 account afterwards aurora the day after.[125] Amid laypeople, abnegation is added frequently empiric by women, as it shows her allegiance and religious purity, assets arete earning and helps ensure approaching abundance for her family. Some religious fasts are empiric in a amusing and admiring changeable group.[130] Continued fasts are acclaimed by accompany and families with appropriate ceremonies.[130]

Meditation

Main article: Jain meditation

Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th-century Gommateshwara bronze depicting continuing brainwork (Kayotsarga posture)

Jainism considers brainwork (dhyana) a all-important practice, but its goals are actual altered from those in Buddhism and Hinduism.[131] In Jainism, brainwork is anxious added with endlessly karmic accessories and activity, not as a agency to transformational insights or self-realization in added Indian religions.[131] According to Padmanabh Jaini, Sāmāyika is a convenance of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a allotment of siksavrata (ritual restraint).[132] The ambition of Sāmāyika is to accomplish equanimity, and it is the additional siksavrata.[d] The samayika ritual is accomplished at diminutive three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with added ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and accomplishing alms work.[133][134][135] According to Johnson, as able-bodied as Jaini, samayika connotes added than meditation, and for a Jain aborigine is the free ritual convenance of "assuming acting abstinent status".[136][e]

Rituals and worship

Main article: Jain rituals

Praying at the anxiety of a bronze of Bahubali

There are abounding rituals in Jainism's assorted sects. According to Dundas, the august lay aisle amid Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily absorbed with abstinent values", breadth the rituals either admire or bless the abstinent activity of Tirthankaras, or progressively admission the cerebral and concrete activity of an ascetic.[138][139] The ultimate ritual is sallekhana, a religious afterlife through abstinent abandonment of aliment and drinks.[138] The Digambara Jains chase the aforementioned theme, but the activity aeon and religious rituals are afterpiece to a Hindu liturgy.[138] The overlap is mainly in the activity aeon (rites-of-passage) rituals, and acceptable developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were beheld as all-important and secular.[140][141]

Jains ritually adoration abundant deities,[139] abnormally the Jinas. In Jainism a Jina as deva is not an avatar (incarnation), but the accomplished accompaniment of omniscience that an abstinent tirthankara achieved.[142] Out of the 24 Tirthankaras, Jains predominantly adoration four: Mahāvīra, Parshvanatha, Neminatha and Rishabhanatha.[143] Amid the non-tirthankara saints, angelic adoration is accustomed for Bahubali amid the Digambaras.[144] The Panch Kalyanaka rituals bethink the bristles activity contest of the tirthankaras, including the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava, Panch Kalyanaka Puja and Snatrapuja.[145][146]

Jain adoration may accommodate ritual offerings and recitals.[147]

The basal ritual is darsana (seeing) of deva, which includes Jina,[148] or added yaksas, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras, Padmavati, Ambika and 16 Vidyadevis (including Sarasvati and Lakshmi).[149][150][151] Terapanthi Digambaras absolute their ritual adoration to Tirthankaras.[152] The adoration ritual is alleged devapuja, and is begin in all Jain sub-traditions.[153] Typically, the Jain layperson enters the temple abutting atelier in simple accouterment and bald anxiety with a basin abounding with offerings, bows down, says the namaskar, completes his or her account and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and again departs.[153]

Jain practices accommodate assuming abhisheka (ceremonial bath) of the images.[154] Some Jain sects apply a pujari (also alleged upadhye), who may be a Hindu, to accomplish apostolic duties at the temple.[155][156] Added busy adoration includes offerings such as rice, beginning and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may ablaze up a lamp with camphor and accomplish advantageous marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees additionally recite Jain texts, decidedly the activity belief of the tirthankaras.[157][147]

Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, acquire in the ability of mantras and that assertive sounds and words are inherently auspicious, able and spiritual.[158][159] The best acclaimed of the mantras, broadly accustomed in assorted sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (panca namaskara) mantra which is believed to be abiding and exact aback the aboriginal tirthankara's time.[158][160] Medieval adoration practices included accurate tantric diagrams of the Rishi-mandala including the tirthankaras.[161] The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accumulate arete for activation realms.[162]

Festivals

Main article: Jain festivals

Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryusana), Jain Centermost of America, New York City

The best important ceremony Jain ceremony is alleged the Paryushana by Svetambaras and Dasa lakshana parva by the Digambaras. It is acclaimed from the 12th day of the crumbling moon in the acceptable lunisolar ages of Bhadrapada in the Indian calendar. This about avalanche in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.[163][164] It lasts eight canicule for Svetambaras, and ten canicule amid the Digambaras.[163] It is a time aback lay bodies fast and pray. The bristles vows are emphasized during this time.[164] Svetambaras recite the Kalpasūtras, while Digambaras apprehend their own texts. The ceremony is an break breadth Jains accomplish alive accomplishment to stop animality arise added activity forms, absolution animals in bondage and preventing the annihilation of animals.[163]

Forgiveness

I absolve all alive beings,

may all alive beings absolve me.

All in this apple are my friends,

I acquire no enemies.

— Jain ceremony adoration on the aftermost day[165]

The aftermost day involves a focused adoration and brainwork affair accustomed as Samvatsari. Jains accede this a day of atonement, acceding absolution to others, gluttonous absolution from all alive beings, physically or mentally allurement for absolution and absolute to amusement anybody in the apple as friends.[163] Absolution is asked by adage "Micchami Dukkadam" or "Khamat khamna" to others. This means, "If I acquire affronted you in any way, advisedly or unknowingly, in thought, chat or action, again I seek your forgiveness." The accurate acceptation of Paryushana is "abiding" or "coming together".[166]

Mahavir Janma Kalyanak celebrates the bearing of Mahāvīra. It is acclaimed on the 13th day of the lunisolar ages of Chaitra in the acceptable Indian calendar. This about avalanche in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.[167][168] The ceremony accommodate visiting Jain temples, pilgrimages to shrines, account Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his allegorical birthplace of Kundagrama in Bihar, arctic of Patna, appropriate contest are captivated by Jains.[167] The abutting day of Dipawali is empiric by Jains as the ceremony of Mahāvīra's accomplishment of moksha.[169] The Hindu ceremony of Diwali is additionally acclaimed on the aforementioned date (Kartika Amavasya). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are busy with lights and diyas (small oil lamps). The lights are allegorical of adeptness or abatement of ignorance. Sweets are about distributed. On Diwali morning, Nirvan Ladoo is offered afterwards praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples above the world. The Jain new year starts appropriate afterwards Diwali.[169] Some added festivals acclaimed by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan, agnate to those in the Hindu communities.[170][171]

Traditions and sects

Main article: Jain schools and branches

Digambara Mahāvīra iconography

Śvētāmbara Simandhar Swami iconography

The Jain association is disconnected into two above denominations, Digambara and Śvētāmbara. Monks of the Digambara (sky-clad) attitude do not abrasion clothes. Changeable monastics of the Digambara camp abrasion unstitched apparent white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas. Śvētāmbara (white-clad) monastics, on the added hand, abrasion seamless white clothes.[172]

During Chandragupta Maurya's reign, Jain attitude states that Acharya Bhadrabahu predicted a twelve-year-long dearth and confused to Karnataka with his disciples. Sthulabhadra, a adherent of Acharya Bhadrabahu, is believed to acquire backward in Magadha.[173] Later, as declared in tradition, aback followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned, they begin those who had remained at Magadha had started cutting white clothes, which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked.[174] This is how Jains acquire the Digambara and Śvētāmbara alienation began, with the above actuality naked while the closing wore white clothes.[175] Digambara saw this as actuality adjoin to the Jain assumption of aparigraha which, according to them, appropriate not alike ascendancy of clothes, i.e. complete nudity. In the 5th-century CE, the Board of Valabhi was organized by Śvētāmbara, which Digambara did not attend. At the council, the Śvētāmbara adopted the texts they had preserved as approved scriptures, which Digambara has anytime aback rejected. This board is believed to acquire caked the celebrated alienation amid these two above traditions of Jainism.[176][177] The age-old almanac of Digambara behavior is independent in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of Kundakunda.[178]

Digambaras and Śvētāmbara alter in their practices and dress code,[179][180][181] interpretations of teachings,[182][180] and on Jain history abnormally apropos the tirthankaras.[183][184][185][186][187] Their monasticism rules differ,[188] as does their iconography.[188] Śvētāmbara has had added changeable than macho mendicants,[189] breadth Digambara has mostly had macho monks[190] and considers males abutting to the soul's liberation.[191][192] The Śvētāmbaras acquire that women can additionally accomplish liberation through asceticism[192][193] and accompaniment that the 19th Tirthankara Māllīnātha was female,[194] which Digambara rejects.[195]

Excavations at Mathura arise Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire (c. 1st aeon CE).[196] Tirthankara represented afterwards clothes, and monks with bolt captivated about the larboard arm, are articular as the Ardhaphalaka (half-clothed) mentioned in texts.[196] The Yapaniyas, believed to acquire originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara dishabille forth with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.[196] In the avant-garde era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily angelic anatomy of Jainism" acquire developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" appearance devotionalism.[197]

Scriptures and texts

Main article: Jain literature

Stela depicting Śhrut Jnāna, or complete scriptural knowledge

The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a 4th or 3rd aeon BCE astrochemistry argument of Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its arrangement from c. 1500 CE.[198]

Mangulam inscription anachronous 3rd aeon BCE

Jain approved scriptures are alleged Agamas. They are believed to acquire been verbally transmitted, abundant like the age-old Buddhist and Hindu texts,[199] and to acquire originated from the sermons of the tirthankaras, whereupon the Ganadharas (chief disciples) transmitted them as Śhrut Jnāna (heard knowledge).[200][201] The announced scriptural accent is believed to be Ardhamagadhi by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a anatomy of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.[199]

The Śvētāmbaras acquire that they acquire preserved 45 of the 50 aboriginal Jain scriptures (having absent an Anga argument and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras acquire that all were lost,[202][203] and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the aftermost abstinent who had fractional adeptness of the aboriginal canon. According to them, Digambara Āchāryas recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four anuyoga.[204][205][206] The Digambara texts partially accede with earlier Śvētāmbara texts, but there are additionally gross differences amid the texts of the two above Jain traditions.[207] The Digambaras created a accessory assize amid 600 and 900 CE, accumulation it into four groups or Vedas: history, cosmography, aesthetics and ethics.[208][f]

The best accustomed and affecting texts of Jainism acquire been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the Kalpa Sūtras are decidedly accustomed amid Śvētāmbaras, which they aspect to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This age-old academic is admired in the Digambara tradition, and they acquire he led their clearing into the age-old south Karnataka arena and created their tradition.[210] Śvētāmbaras acquire instead that Bhadrabahu confused to Nepal.[210] Both traditions accede his Niryuktis and Samhitas important. The age-old actual Sanskrit argument by Umaswati, the Tattvarthasūtra is advised accurate by all traditions of Jainism.[211][g][213] In the Digambara tradition, the texts accounting by Kundakunda are awful admired and acquire been historically influential.[214][215][216] Added important Jain texts include: Samayasara, Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra, and Niyamasara.[217]

Comparison with Buddhism and Hinduism

Main articles: Buddhism and Jainism and Jainism and Hinduism

All three religions allotment concepts and doctrines such as afterlife and rebirth, with agnate festivals and apostolic traditions.[218][219][220] They do not acquire in abiding heaven or hell or acumen day. They admission the abandon to accept behavior such as in gods or no-gods, to disagree with amount teachings, and to accept whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all accede ethics such as non-violence to be important,[221] articulation adversity to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and acquire adherence is a agency to aware peace, beatitude and abiding liberation (moksha).[222][223]

Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises. All acquire in impermanence, but Buddhism incorporates the apriorism of anatta ("no abiding cocky or soul"). Hinduism incorporates an abiding abiding atman ("soul"), while Jainism incorporates an abiding but alteration jiva ("soul").[224][225][226] In Jain thought, there are absolute abiding jivas, predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few siddhas (perfected ones).[227] Clashing Jainism, Hindu philosophies beset nondualism breadth all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as commutual one[228][229][230]

While both Hinduism and Jainism acquire "soul exists" to be a apparent truth, best Hindu systems accede it to be consistently present, absolute and connected (vibhu), but some Hindu advisers adduce anatomy to be atomic. Hindu anticipation about discusses Atman and Brahman through a monistic or bifold framework. In contrast, Jain anticipation denies the Hindu abstract abstraction of Brahman, and Jain aesthetics considers the anatomy to be anytime alteration and apprenticed to the anatomy or amount for ceremony lifetime, thereby accepting a bound admeasurement that infuses the absolute anatomy of a alive being.[231]

Jainism is agnate to Buddhism in not acquainted the ability of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both acquire "soul exists" as a apparent truth.[232][222] Jains and Hindus acquire frequently intermarried, decidedly in northern, axial and western regions of India.[233][234] Some aboriginal colonial advisers declared that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a bounce of the Hindu degree system,[235][236] but afterwards advisers accede this a Western error.[237] A degree arrangement not based on bearing has been a celebrated allotment of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.[233][238][239][240][h]

Monasticism is agnate in all three traditions,[243][244] with agnate rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month cloudburst season, and celibacy,[244] basic afore the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.[243] Jain and Hindu apostolic communities acquire frequently been added adaptable and had an afoot lifestyle, while Buddhist monks acquire advantaged acceptance to a sangha (monastery) and blockage in its premises.[245] Buddhist apostolic rules forbid a abbot to go alfresco afterwards cutting the sangha's characteristic blooming robe, or to use board bowls.[243] In contrast, Jain apostolic rules acquire either appropriate dishabille (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they acquire disagreed on the angary of the board or abandoned alembic as the allurement basin by Jain monks.[243][i]

Jains acquire agnate angle with Hindus that carelessness in self-defence can be justified,[247] and that a soldier who kills enemies in action is assuming a accustomed duty.[248] Jain communities accustomed the use of aggressive ability for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, aggressive commanders, and soldiers.[249] The Jain and Hindu communities acquire about been actual abutting and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples acquire included a Jain Tirthankara aural its bounds in a abode of honour,[250][251] while temple complexes such as the Badami cavern temples and Khajuraho affection both Hindu and Jain monuments.[252][253]

Art and architecture

Main article: Jain art

The bearing of Mahavira, from the Kalpa Sūtra (c. 1375–1400 CE)

Sihanamdika ayagapata, 25-50 CE, Kankali Tila, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh

Inscriptions at a Udaygiri-Khandagiri 2nd-1st-century BCE Jain bedrock cut cave, Odisha.[254]

Jainism has contributed decidedly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts characterize activity legends of tirthankara or added important people, decidedly with them in a built-in or continuing attentive posture. Yakshas and yakshinis, accessory alcohol who bouncer the tirthankara, are usually apparent with them.[255] The age-old accustomed Jain angel is in the Patna museum. It is anachronous about to the 3rd aeon BCE.[255] Bronze images of Pārśva can be apparent in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are anachronous to the 2nd aeon BCE.[256]

Ayagapata is a blazon of votive book acclimated in Jainism for donation and adoration in the aboriginal centuries. These tablets are busy with altar and designs axial to Jain adoration such as the stupa, dharmacakra and triratna. They present accompanying trends or angel and attribute worship. Abundant such bean tablets were apparent during excavations at age-old Jain sites like Kankali Tila abreast Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, India. The convenance of altruistic these tablets is accurate from 1st aeon BCE to 3rd aeon CE.[257][258] Samavasarana, a admonition anteroom of tirthankaras with assorted beings concentrically placed, is an important affair of Jain art.[259]

The Jain belfry in Chittor, Rajasthan, is a acceptable archetype of Jain architecture.[260] Busy manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, absolute diagrams from Jain cosmology.[261] Best of the paintings and illustrations characterize actual events, accustomed as Panch Kalyanaka, from the activity of the tirthankara. Rishabha, the aboriginal tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the continuing position. He is acclaimed from added tirthankara by the continued locks of beard falling to his shoulders. Balderdash images additionally arise in his sculptures.[262] In paintings, incidents from his life, like his alliance and Indra appearance his forehead, are depicted. Added paintings appearance him presenting a ceramics basin to his followers; he is additionally apparent painting a house, weaving, and actuality visited by his mother Marudevi.[263] Ceremony of the twenty-four tirthankara is associated with characteristic emblems, which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara.[264]

Temples

Main article: Jain temple

Jainism is amid in IndiaPalitanaPalitanaGirnarGirnarMount AbuMount AbuSonagiriSonagiriHastinapurHastinapurAyodhyaAyodhyaShikharjiShikharjiKundalpurKundalpurPawapuriPawapuriBawangajaBawangajaRanakpurRanakpurKhajurahoKhajurahoVaranasiVaranasiShravanabelagolaShravanabelagolaUdayagiriUdayagiriKumbhojKumbhojOsianOsianPattadakalPattadakalHalebiduHalebiduElloraElloraGunturGunturKulpakjiKulpakjiMattancherryMattancherryTirumalaiTirumalaiPudukottaiPudukottaiMaduraiMaduraiChitharalChitharal

Major crusade and temple sites in Jainism.

A Jain temple, a Derasar or Basadi, is a abode of worship.[265] Temples accommodate tirthankara images, some fixed, others moveable.[265] These are stationed in the abutting sanctum, one of the two angelic zones, the added actuality the basic hall.[265] One of the images is apparent as the moolnayak (primary deity).[266] A manastambha (column of honor) is a colonnade that is about complete in advanced of Jain temples.[267] Temple architecture is advised a admirable act.[268]

Ancient Jain monuments accommodate the Udaigiri Hills abreast Bhelsa (Vidisha) in Madhya Pradesh, the Ellora in Maharashtra, the Palitana temples in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples abreast Mount Abu, Rajasthan.[269] Chaumukha temple in Ranakpur is advised one of the best admirable Jain temples and is acclaimed for its abundant carvings.[270] According to Jain texts, Shikharji is the abode breadth twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tīrthaṅkaras forth with abounding added monks accomplished moksha (died afterwards actuality reborn, with their anatomy in Siddhashila). The Shikharji armpit in northeastern Jharkhand is accordingly a admired crusade site.[271][j] The Palitana temples are the holiest altar for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.[273] Forth with Shikharji the two sites are advised the holiest of all crusade sites by the Jain community.[274] The Jain complex, Khajuraho and Jain Narayana temple are allotment of a UNESCO Apple Ancestry Site.[275][276] Shravanabelagola, Saavira Kambada Basadi or 1000 pillars and Brahma Jinalaya are important Jain centers in Karnataka.[277][278][279] In and about Madurai, there are 26 caves, 200 bean beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.[280]

The 2nd–1st aeon BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are affluent with carvings of tirthanakars and deities with inscriptions including the Elephant Cavern inscription.[281][282] Jain cavern temples at Badami, Mangi-Tungi and the Ellora Caves are advised important.[283] The Sittanavasal Cavern temple is a accomplished archetype of Jain art with an aboriginal cavern shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with accomplished adorn paintings commensurable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen bean beds with 2nd aeon BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions.[284] The 8th aeon Kazhugumalai temple marks the awakening of Jainism in South India.[285]

Pilgrimages

Main article: Tirtha (Jainism)

Shikharji

Jain Tirtha (pilgrim) sites are disconnected into the afterward categories:[286]

Siddhakshetra – Armpit believed to be of the moksha of an arihant (kevalin) or tirthankara, such as: Ashtapada, Shikharji, Girnar, Pawapuri, Palitana, Mangi-Tungi, and Champapuri (capital of Anga).

Atishayakshetra – Locations breadth all-powerful contest are believed to acquire occurred, such as: Mahavirji, Rishabhdeo, Kundalpur, Tijara, and Aharji.

Puranakshetra –  Places associated with the lives of abundant men, such as: Ayodhya, Vidisha, Hastinapur, and Rajgir.

Gyanakshetra –  Places associated with acclaimed acharyas, or centers of learning, such as Shravanabelagola.

Outside abreast India, Jain communities congenital temples in locations such as Nagarparkar, Sindh (Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO acting apple ancestry armpit application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a abode of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was already an important cultural mural afore "the aftermost actual Jain association larboard the breadth in 1947 at Partition".[287]

Statues and sculptures

Main article: Jain sculpture

Idol of Suparśvanātha

Jain sculptures usually characterize one of the twenty-four tīrthaṅkaras; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are amid the added popular, about built-in in lotus position or kayotsarga, forth with Arihant, Bahubali, and protector deities like Ambika.[288] Quadruple images are additionally popular. Tirthankar idols attending similar, differentiated by their alone symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose arch is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked afterwards any beautification, admitting Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.[289]

A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) bronze of Bahubali, Gommateshvara, congenital in 981 CE by the Ganga abbot and administrator Chavundaraya, is anchored on a acropolis in Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. This bronze was voted aboriginal in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India.[290] The 33 m (108 ft) alpine Bronze of Ahiṃsā (depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the Nashik commune in 2015.[291] Idols are about fabricated in Ashtadhatu (literally "eight metals"), namely Akota Bronze, brass, gold, silver, bean monoliths, bedrock cut, and adored stones.[292][293]

Symbols

Main article: Jain symbols

Om in Jainism

Jain Flag

Jain icons and arts absorb symbols such as the swastika, Om, and the Ashtamangala. In Jainism, Om is a abridged advertence to the brand "A-A-A-U-M" of the bristles parameshthis: "Arihant, Ashiri, Acharya, Upajjhaya, Muni",[294][295] or the bristles curve of the Ṇamōkāra Mantra.[296][297] The Ashtamangala is a set of eight advantageous symbols:[298] in the Digambara tradition, these are Chatra, Dhvaja, Kalasha, Fly-whisk, Mirror, Chair, Duke fan and Vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika, Srivatsa, Nandavarta, Vardhmanaka (food vessel), Bhadrasana (seat), Kalasha (pot), Darpan (mirror) and brace of fish.[298]

The duke with a caster on the approach symbolizes ahimsā. The caster represents the dharmachakra, which stands for the boldness to arrest the saṃsāra (wandering) through the adamant following of ahimsā. The bristles colours of the Jain banderole represent the Pañca-Parameṣṭhi and the bristles vows.[299] The swastika's four accoutrements symbolise the four realms in which activation occurs according to Jainism: humans, adorable beings, abhorrent beings and non-humans.[300][301] The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in age-old texts: actual faith, actual compassionate and actual conduct, believed to advance to airy perfection.[302]

In 1974, on the 2500th ceremony of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain association chose a audible accumulated angel for Jainism.[303] It depicts the three lokas, heaven, the beastly apple and hell. The semi-circular advanced allocation symbolizes Siddhashila, a area above the three realms. The Jain swastika and the attribute of Ahiṃsā are included, with the Jain mantra Parasparopagraho Jīvānām[304] from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's Tattvarthasūtra, acceptation "souls cede account to one another".[305]

History

Main article: History of Jainism

Rishabhdev, believed to acquire lived over a 101631 years ago, is advised the acceptable architect of Jainism.

Ancient

See also: Timeline of Jainism and Śramaṇa

Jain inscription of Ashoka (c.236 BCE)

Chaumukha Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira), LACMA, 6th century

Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves congenital by Baron Kharavela of Mahameghavahana absolutism in 2nd aeon BCE

The Indra Sabha cavern at the Ellora Caves, are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments.

Jainism is an age-old Indian adoration of abstruse origins.[306][307][308] Jains affirmation it to be eternal, and accede the aboriginal tirthankara Rishabhanatha as its alluvial founder.[309] Advisers acquire accepted that images such as those of the balderdash in Indus Valley Civilization allowance are accompanying to Jainism.[310] It is one of the Śramaṇa traditions of age-old India, those that alone the Vedas,[311][312] and according to the philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, it existed afore them.[313][314]

The historicity of aboriginal twenty two Tirthankars is not traced yet.[315][316] The 23rd tirthankar, Parshvanatha, was a actual being,[317][318] possibly of the eighth aeon BCE.[319] Mahāvīra is advised a abreast of the Buddha, in about the 6th aeon BCE.[320][321] The alternation amid the two religions began with the Buddha;[322] later, they competed for followers and the merchant barter networks that abiding them.[245][323] Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes acquire the aforementioned or agnate titles but present altered doctrines.[324]

Jains accede the kings Bimbisara (c. 558–491 BCE), Ajatashatru (c. 492–460 BCE), and Udayin (c. 460–440 BCE) of the Haryanka absolutism as assemblage of Jainism.[325] Jain attitude states that Chandragupta Maurya (322–298 BCE), the architect of the Mauryan Empire and grandfathering of Ashoka, became a abbot and adherent of Jain abstinent Bhadrabahu in the afterwards allotment of his life.[326][327] Jain texts accompaniment that he died carefully at Shravanabelagola by fasting.[328][326] Versions of Chandragupta's adventure arise in Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts.[329][330]

The 3rd aeon BCE emperor Ashoka, in his colonnade edicts, mentions the Niganthas (Jains).[331] Tirthankara statues date aback to the additional aeon BC.[332] Archeological affirmation suggests that Mathura was an important Jain centermost from the 2nd aeon BCE onwards.[258] Inscriptions from as aboriginal as the 1st aeon CE already appearance the alienation amid Digambara and Śvētāmbara.[333] There is inscriptional affirmation for the attendance of Jain monks in south India by the additional or aboriginal centuries BC, and archaeological affirmation of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the additional aeon CE.[334]

Royal advocacy has been a key agency in the advance and abatement of Jainism.[335] In the additional bisected of the 1st aeon CE, Hindu kings of the Rashtrakuta absolutism sponsored above Jain cavern temples.[336] Baron Harshavardhana of the 7th aeon championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.[337] The Pallava Baron Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) acclimatized from Jainism to Shaivism.[338] His assignment Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules assertive Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses antipathy for Jain ascetics.[339] The Yadava absolutism congenital abounding temples at the Ellora Caves amid 700 and 1000 CE.[340][341][342] Baron Āma of the 8th aeon acclimatized to Jainism, and the Jain crusade attitude was able-bodied accustomed in his era.[343] Mularaja (10th aeon CE), the architect of the Chalukya dynasty, complete a Jain temple, alike admitting he was not a Jain.[344] During the 11th century, Basava, a abbot to the Jain Kalachuri baron Bijjala, acclimatized abounding Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and acclimatized them to their use.[345] The Hoysala Baron Vishnuvardhana (c. 1108–1152 CE) became a Vaishnavite beneath the access of Ramanuja, and Vaishnavism again grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.[346]

Medieval

Jain monuments in Nagarparkar, Pakistan

The charcoal of Gori Jain temples in Nagarparkar, Pakistan, a crusade armpit afore 1947.[347]

Jainism faced animality during and afterwards the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent.[348] Muslims rulers, such as Mahmud Ghazni (1001), Mohammad Ghori (1175) and Ala-ud-din Muhammed Shah Khalji (1298) added afflicted the Jain community.[349] They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or acclimatized them into mosques. They additionally austere Jain books and dead Jains. There were cogent exceptions, such as Emperor Akbar (1542–1605) whose allegorical religious tolerance, out of account for Jains, ordered the absolution of bound birds and banned the killing of animals on the Jain ceremony of Paryusan.[350] Afterwards Akbar, Jains faced an acute aeon of Muslim animality in the 17th century.[351][352] The Jain association were the acceptable bankers and financiers, and this decidedly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a allotment of the political ability during the Islamic aphorism aeon of the Indian subcontinent.[353]

Colonial era

A affiche of Virchand Gandhi who represented Jainism at the Parliament of World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.

Portrait of Shrimad Rajchandra, a admired Jain saint, artist and reformer.

A Gujarati Jain academic Virchand Gandhi represented Jainism at the aboriginal Apple Parliament of Religions in 1893, captivated in America during the Chicago World’s Fair. He formed to avert the rights of Jains, and wrote and lectured abundantly on Jainism[354][355]

Shrimad Rajchandra, a mystic, artist and philosopher spearheaded the awakening of Jainism in Gujarat. He performed śatāvadhāna (100 Avadhāna) at Sir Framji Cowasji Institute in Bombay on 22 January 1887, which acquired him acclaim and publicity. He was awarded gold medals by institutes and accessible for his performances as able-bodied as appellation of Sakshat Saraswati (Incarnation of the Goddess of Knowledge) while he was in his teenage.[356][357] The performances admiring advanced advantage in civic newspapers.[358] Virchand Gandhi mentioned this accomplishment at the Parliament of the World's Religions.[359] He was able-bodied accustomed as a airy adviser of Mahatma Gandhi.[360] They were alien in Mumbai in 1891 and had assorted conversations through belletrist while Gandhi was in South Africa. Gandhi acclaimed his consequence of Shrimad Rajchandra in his autobiography, The Adventure of My Experiments with Truth, calling him his "guide and helper" and his "refuge in moments of airy crisis". His teaching anon afflicted Gandhi's non-violence philosophy.[361][362][360]

Colonial era letters and Christian missions abnormally beheld Jainism as a camp of Hinduism, a camp of Buddhism, or a audible religion.[363][364][365] Christian missionaries were balked at Jain bodies afterwards agnostic architect gods abnegation to catechumen to Christianity, while colonial era Jain advisers such as Champat Rai Jain dedicated Jainism adjoin criticism and bribery by Christian activists.[366] Missionaries of Christianity and Islam advised Jain traditions agnostic and superstitious.[367] These criticisms, states John E. Cort, were awry and abandoned agnate practices aural sects of Christianity.[368]

The British colonial government in India and Indian baronial states answer religious tolerance. However, laws were anesthetized that fabricated adrift naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew accustomed abutment from the majority Hindu population, but decidedly impacted Digambara monks.[369] The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj adjoin this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya Shantisagar entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was affected to awning his body. He again led an India-wide bout as the naked abbot with his followers, to assorted Digambara angelic sites, and was accustomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.[369] Shantisagar fasted to argue the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the British Raj and prompted their discontinuance.[370] The laws were abolished by India afterwards independence.[371]

Modern era

Main article: Jain community

Chandanaji became the aboriginal Jain woman to accept the appellation of Acharya in 1987.[372]

Followers of Jainism are alleged "Jains", a chat acquired from the Sanskrit jina (victor), which agency an all-seeing actuality who teaches the aisle of salvation.[373][36] The majority of Jains currently abide in India. With four to bristles actor followers worldwide,[374][375] Jainism is baby compared to above apple religions. Jains anatomy 0.37% of India's population, mostly in the states of Maharashtra (1.4 actor in 2011,[376] 31.46% of Indian Jains), Rajasthan (13.97%), Gujarat (13.02%) and Madhya Pradesh (12.74%). Karnataka (9.89%), Uttar Pradesh (4.79%), Delhi (3.73%) and Tamil Nadu (2.01%) additionally acquire cogent Jain populations.[376] Alfresco India, Jain communities can be begin in Europe, the Affiliated Kingdom, the Affiliated States, Canada,[377] Australia and Kenya.[378] Jainism is additionally overextension rapidly in Japan, breadth there are added than 5,000 families who acquire acclimatized to Jainism.[379]

According to the Civic Ancestors and Health Survey (NFHS-4) conducted in 2015–16, Jains anatomy the wealthiest association in India.[380] Jains acquire the accomplished articulacy amount (87%) in India, in the 7-years to oldest age group, according to its 2011 census, and the best academy graduates.[381] Excluding the retired, Jain articulacy in India exceeded 97%. The changeable to macho adolescent sex arrangement in Jains is 940, while in the 0–6 year age was additional everyman for Jains (870 girls per 1,000 boys), academy than Sikhs in India. Jain males acquire the accomplished assignment accord ante in India, while Jain females acquire the lowest.[382]

Jainism has been accepted for some of its practices and beliefs. The baton of the attack for Indian independence, Mahatma Gandhi, abundantly afflicted by Jainism, said:[383]

No adoration in the Apple has explained the assumption of Ahiṃsā so acutely and systematically as is discussed with its account in every beastly activity in Jainism. As and aback the benevolent assumption of Ahiṃsā or non-violence will be ascribed for convenance by the bodies of the apple to accomplish their end of activity in this apple and beyond, Jainism is abiding to acquire the apical cachet and Mahāvīra is abiding to be admired as the greatest ascendancy on Ahiṃsā.[384]