Gunpowder, additionally accustomed as the retronym atramentous crumb to analyze it from avant-garde smokeless powder, is the ancient accustomed actinic explosive. It consists of a admixture of sulfur (S), charcoal (C), and potassium nitrate (saltpeter, KNO3). The sulfur and charcoal act as fuels while the saltpeter is an oxidizer.[1][2] Armament has been broadly acclimated as a propellant in firearms, artillery, rocketry, and pyrotechnics, including use as a announcement abettor for explosives in quarrying, mining, and alley building.
Gunpowder was invented in 9th-century China as one of the Four Abundant Inventions, and beforehand throughout best genitalia of Eurasia by the end of the 13th century.[3] Originally developed by the Taoists for alleviative purposes, armament was aboriginal acclimated for warfare about 904 AD.[4]
Gunpowder is classified as a low atomic because of its about apathetic atomization aggregate and appropriately low brisance. Low explosives deflagrate (i.e., burn) at subsonic speeds, admitting aerial explosives bang bearing a supersonic shockwave. Agitation of armament arranged abaft a projectile generates abundant burden to force the beforehand from the cage at aerial speed, but usually not abundant force to breach the gun barrel. Armament appropriately makes a acceptable propellant, but is below acceptable for ballyhoo bedrock or fortifications with its low-yield atomic power. Nonetheless it was broadly acclimated to ample alloyed accoutrements shells (and acclimated in mining and civilian engineering projects) until the additional bisected of the 19th century, back the aboriginal aerial explosives were put into use.
Gunpowder is no best acclimated in avant-garde weapons, nor is it acclimated for automated purposes, due to its about disability compared to newer alternatives such as bang and ammonium nitrate/fuel oil.[5][6] Today armament accoutrements are bound primarily to hunting, ambition shooting, and bulletless absolute reenactmentsA simple, frequently cited, actinic blueprint for the agitation of atramentous crumb is:
2 KNO3 + S + 3 C → K2S + N2 + 3 CO2.
A balanced, but still simplified, blueprint is:[7]
10 KNO3 + 3 S + 8 C → 2 K2CO3 + 3 K2SO4 + 6 CO2 + 5 N2.
Gunpowder does not bake as a distinct reaction, so the byproducts are not calmly predicted. One study[8] showed that it produced (in adjustment of bottomward quantities) 55.91% solid products: potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate, potassium sulfide, sulfur, potassium nitrate, potassium thiocyanate, carbon, ammonium carbonate and 42.98% aerial products: carbon dioxide, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen, methane, 1.11% water.
Black crumb fabricated with less-expensive and added abounding sodium nitrate instead of potassium nitrate (in adapted proportions) works aloof as well. However, it is added hygroscopic than powders fabricated from potassium nitrate. Muzzleloaders accept been accustomed to blaze afterwards blind on a bank for decades in a loaded state, provided they remained dry. By contrast, atramentous crumb fabricated with sodium nitrate allegation be kept bankrupt to abide stable.
Gunpowder releases 3 megajoules per kilogram and contains its own oxidant. This is lower than TNT (4.7 megajoules per kilogram), or gasoline (47.2 megajoules per kilogram, but gasoline requires an oxidant, so an optimized gasoline and O2 admixture contains 10.4 megajoules per kilogram).
Black crumb additionally has a low activity anatomy compared to avant-garde "smokeless" powders, and appropriately to accomplish aerial activity loadings, ample amounts of atramentous crumb are bare with abundant projectiles.[citation needed]
Effect
Gunpowder is a low explosive: it does not detonate, but rather deflagrates (burns quickly). This is an advantage in a propellant device, breadth one does not admiration a shock that would blast the gun and potentially abuse the operator; however, it is a check back an admission is desired. In that case, armament (and best importantly, gases produced by its burning) allegation be confined. Back it contains its own oxidizer and additionally burns faster below pressure, its agitation is able of alpha containers such as a shell, grenade, or improvised "pipe bomb" or "pressure cooker" casings to anatomy shrapnel.
In quarrying, aerial explosives are about adopted for ballyhoo rock. However, because of its low brisance, atramentous crumb causes below fractures and after-effects in added accessible bean compared to added explosives, authoritative atramentous crumb advantageous for announcement slate, which is fragile,[9] or awe-inspiring bean such as granite and marble. Atramentous crumb is able-bodied ill-fitted for bare rounds, arresting flares, admission charges, and rescue-line launches. Atramentous crumb is additionally acclimated in fireworks for appropriation shells, in rockets as fuel, and in assertive appropriate effects.
Combustion converts below than bisected the accumulation of atramentous crumb to gas, best of it turns into chapped matter. Some of it is ejected, crumbling affective power, abuse the air, and about actuality a nuisance (giving abroad a soldier's position, breeding fog that hinders vision, etc.). Some of it ends up as a blubbery band of charcoal central the barrel, breadth it additionally is a nuisance for consecutive shots, and a account of jamming an automated weapon. Moreover, this balance is hygroscopic, and with the accession of clammy captivated from the air forms a acerb substance. The charcoal contains potassium oxide or sodium oxide that turns into potassium hydroxide, or sodium hydroxide, which corrodes wrought adamant or animate gun barrels. Atramentous crumb accoutrements accordingly crave absolute and approved charwoman to abolish the residue.[citation needed]
History
Earliest accustomed accounting blueprint for gunpowder, from the Wujing Zongyao of 1044 AD.
Stoneware bombs, accustomed in Japanese as Tetsuhau (iron bomb), or in Chinese as Zhentianlei (thunder blast bomb), biconcave from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011, anachronous to the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281 AD).
Main articles: History of armament and Timeline of the Armament Age
Further information: History of the firearm
China
Further information: Wujing Zongyao, Four Abundant Inventions, Account of Chinese inventions, and Heilongjiang duke cannon
The aboriginal accustomed advertence to what can be advised armament in China occurred in the 9th aeon AD during the Tang dynasty, aboriginal in a blueprint independent in the Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue (太上聖祖金丹秘訣) in 808, and afresh about 50 years afterwards in a Taoist argument accustomed as the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe (真元妙道要略).[10] The Taishang Shengzu Jindan Mijue mentions a armament blueprint composed of six genitalia sulfur to six genitalia saltpeter to one allotment birthwort herb.[10] According to the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, "Some accept acrimonious calm sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and bonfire result, so that their calmly and faces accept been burnt, and alike the accomplished abode breadth they were alive austere down."[11] Based on these Taoist texts, the apparatus of armament by Chinese alchemists was acceptable an adventitious byproduct from abstracts gluttonous to actualize the borsch of life.[12] This alpha anesthetic agent of armament is reflected in its Chinese name huoyao (Chinese: 火药/火藥; pinyin: huŏ yào /xuo yɑʊ/), which agency "fire medicine".[13] Saltpeter was accustomed to the Chinese by the mid-1st aeon AD and was primarily produced in the ambit of Sichuan, Shanxi, and Shandong.[14] There is able affirmation of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in assorted alleviative combinations.[15] A Chinese actinic argument anachronous 492 acclaimed saltpeter burnt with a amethyst flame, accouterment a applied and reliable agency of appropriate it from added asleep salts, appropriately enabling alchemists to appraise and analyze ablution techniques; the ancient Latin accounts of saltpeter ablution are anachronous afterwards 1200.[16]
The ancient actinic blueprint for armament appeared in the 11th aeon Song absolutism text, Wujing Zongyao (Complete Essentials from the Aggressive Classics), accounting by Zeng Gongliang amid 1040 and 1044.[17] The Wujing Zongyao provides album references to a array of mixtures that included petrochemicals—as able-bodied as garlic and honey. A apathetic bout for blaze throwing mechanisms appliance the carry assumption and for fireworks and rockets is mentioned. The admixture formulas in this book do not accommodate abundant saltpeter to actualize an atomic however; actuality bound to at best 50% saltpeter, they aftermath an incendiary.[17] The Essentials was accounting by a Song absolutism cloister ambassador and there is little affirmation that it had any absolute appulse on warfare; there is no acknowledgment of armament use in the chronicles of the wars adjoin the Tanguts in the 11th century, and China was contrarily mostly at accord during this century. About armament had already been acclimated for blaze arrows back at atomic the 10th century. The aboriginal recorded aggressive appliance of armament dates its use to the year 904 in the anatomy of damaging projectiles.[4] In the afterward centuries assorted armament weapons such as bombs, blaze lances, and the gun appeared in China.[3][18] Atomic weapons such as bombs accept been apparent in a ambush off the bank of Japan anachronous from 1281, during the Mongol invasions of Japan.[19]
By 1083 the Song cloister was bearing hundreds of bags of blaze arrows for their garrisons.[20] Bombs and the aboriginal proto-guns, accustomed as "fire lances", became arresting during the 12th aeon and were acclimated by the Song during the Jin-Song Wars. Blaze lances were aboriginal recorded to accept been acclimated at the Siege of De'an in 1132 by Song armament adjoin the Jin.[21] In the aboriginal 13th aeon the Jin activated iron-casing bombs.[22] Projectiles were added to blaze lances, and re-usable blaze carve barrels were developed, aboriginal out of accustomed paper, and afresh metal. By 1257 some blaze lances were battlefront abounding of bullets.[23][24] In the backward 13th aeon metal blaze lances became 'eruptors', proto-cannons battlefront co-viative projectiles (mixed with the propellant, rather than built-in over it with a wad), and by 1287 at the latest, had become accurate guns, the duke cannon.[25]
Middle East
Fire arrows and blaze lances in an Arabic manuscript.
Main articles: Account of inventions in the medieval Islamic apple and Alchemy and allure in medieval Islam
The Muslims acquired adeptness of armament some time amid 1240 and 1280, by which point the Syrian Hasan al-Rammah had written, in Arabic, recipes for gunpowder, instructions for the ablution of saltpeter, and descriptions of armament incendiaries. It is adumbrated by al-Rammah's accepting of "terms that appropriate he acquired his adeptness from Chinese sources" and his references to saltpeter as "Chinese snow" (Arabic: ثلج الصين thalj al-ṣīn), fireworks as "Chinese flowers" and rockets as "Chinese arrows" that adeptness of armament accustomed from China.[26] However, because al-Rammah attributes his absolute to "his ancestor and forefathers", al-Hassan argues that armament became accustomed in Syria and Egypt by "the end of the twelfth aeon or the alpha of the thirteenth".[27] In Persia saltpeter was accustomed as "Chinese salt" (Persian: نمک چینی) namak-i chīnī)[28][29] or "salt from Chinese alkali marshes" (نمک شوره چینی namak-i shūra-yi chīnī).[30][31]
Hasan al-Rammah included 107 armament recipes in his argument al-Furusiyyah wa al-Manasib al-Harbiyya (The Book of Aggressive Horsemanship and Ingenious War Devices), 22 of which are for rockets. If one takes the average of 17 of these 22 compositions for rockets (75% nitrates, 9.06% sulfur, and 15.94% charcoal), it is about identical to the avant-garde appear ideal armament compound of 75% potassium nitrate, 10% sulfur, and 15% charcoal.[27]
Al-Hassan claims that in the Battle of Ain Jalut of 1260, the Mamluks acclimated adjoin the Mongols in "the aboriginal cannon in history" armament blueprint with near-identical ideal agreement ratios for atomic gunpowder.[27] Added historians appetite attention apropos claims of Islamic accoutrements use in the 1204–1324 aeon as backward medieval Arabic texts acclimated the aforementioned chat for gunpowder, naft, that they acclimated for an beforehand incendiary, naphtha.[32][33]
Khan claims that it was advancing Mongols who alien armament to the Islamic world[34] and cites Mamluk animosity appear aboriginal musketeers in their infantry as an archetype of how armament weapons were not consistently met with accessible accepting in the Average East.[35] Similarly, the abnegation of their Qizilbash armament to use accoutrements contributed to the Safavid beating at Chaldiran in 1514.[35]
The blaster appeared in the Ottoman Empire by 1465.[36] In 1598, Chinese biographer Zhao Shizhen declared Turkish muskets as actuality above to European muskets.[37] The Chinese aggressive book Wu Pei Chih (1621) afterwards declared Turkish muskets that acclimated a rack-and-pinion mechanism, which was not accustomed to accept been acclimated in European or Chinese accoutrements at the time.[38]
The state-controlled accomplish of armament by the Ottoman Empire through aboriginal accumulation chains to admission nitre, sulfur and high-quality charcoal from oaks in Anatolia contributed decidedly to its amplification amid the 15th and 18th century. It was not until afterwards in the 19th aeon back the syndicalist assembly of Turkish armament was abundantly reduced, which coincided with the abatement of its aggressive might.[39]
Europe
Earliest delineation of a European cannon, "De Nobilitatibus Sapientii Et Prudentiis Regum", Walter de Milemete, 1326.
De la pirotechnia, 1540
Some sources acknowledgment accessible armament weapons actuality deployed by the Mongols adjoin European armament at the Battle of Mohi in 1241.[40][41][42] Professor Kenneth Warren Chase credits the Mongols for introducing into Europe armament and its associated weaponry.[43] However, there is no bright avenue of transmission,[44] and while the Mongols are generally acicular to as the likeliest vector, Timothy May credibility out that "there is no accurate affirmation that the Mongols acclimated armament weapons on a approved base alfresco of China."[45] However, Timothy May additionally credibility out "However... the Mongols acclimated the armament weapon in their wars adjoin the Jin, the Song and in their invasions of Japan."[45]
The ancient Western accounts of armament appears in texts accounting by English philosopher Roger Bacon in 1267 alleged Opus Majus and Opus Tertium.[46] The oldest accounting recipes for armament in Europe were recorded below the name Marcus Graecus or Mark the Greek amid 1280 and 1300 in the Liber Ignium, or Book of Fires.[47]
Records appearance that, in England, armament was actuality fabricated in 1346 at the Belfry of London; a crumb abode existed at the Belfry in 1461; and in 1515 three King's armament makers formed there.[48] Armament was additionally actuality fabricated or stored at added Aristocratic castles, such as Portchester.[49] The English Civilian War (1642–1645) led to an amplification of the armament industry, with the abolition of the Aristocratic Apparent in August 1641.[48]
In backward 14th aeon Europe, armament was bigger by corning, the convenance of dehydration armament into baby clumps to beforehand agitation and consistency.[50] During this time, European manufacturers additionally began consistently antibacterial saltpeter, appliance copse ashes absolute potassium carbonate to beforehand calcium from their dung liquor, and appliance ox blood, alum, and slices of alarm to analyze the solution.[50]
During the Renaissance, two European schools of pyrotechnic anticipation emerged, one in Italy and the added at Nuremberg, Germany.[51] In Italy, Vannoccio Biringuccio, built-in in 1480, was a affiliate of the brotherhood Fraternita di Santa Barbara but bankrupt with the attitude of clandestineness by ambience bottomward aggregate he knew in a book blue-blooded De la pirotechnia, accounting in vernacular. It was appear posthumously in 1540, with 9 editions over 138 years, and additionally reprinted by MIT Columnist in 1966.[50]
By the mid-17th aeon fireworks were acclimated for brawl on an aberrant calibration in Europe, actuality accustomed alike at resorts and accessible gardens.[52] With the advertisement of Deutliche Anweisung zur Feuerwerkerey (1748), methods for creating fireworks were abundantly acclaimed and well-described that "Firework authoritative has become an exact science."[53] In 1774 Louis XVI ascended to the arch of France at age 20. Afterwards he apparent that France was not arrogant in gunpowder, a Armament Administration was established; to arch it, the advocate Antoine Lavoisier was appointed. Although from a accustomed family, afterwards his aggregate in law Lavoisier became affluent from a aggregation set up to aggregate taxes for the Crown; this accustomed him to accompany alpha accustomed science as a hobby.[54]
Without admission to bargain saltpeter (controlled by the British), for hundreds of years France had relied on saltpetremen with aristocratic warrants, the advantage de fouille or "right to dig", to appropriate nitrous-containing clay and annihilate walls of barnyards, afterwards advantage to the owners.[55] This acquired farmers, the wealthy, or absolute villages to allurement the petermen and the associated authority to leave their barrio abandoned and the saltpeter uncollected. Lavoisier instituted a blast affairs to admission saltpeter production, revised (and afterwards eliminated) the advantage de fouille, researched best adorning and crumb accomplishment methods, instituted administration and record-keeping, and accustomed appraisement that encouraged clandestine beforehand in works. Although saltpeter from new Prussian-style adulteration works had not been produced yet (the action demography about 18 months), in alone a year France had armament to export. A arch almsman of this surplus was the American Revolution. By accurate testing and adjusting the accommodation and cutting time, crumb from mills such as at Essonne alfresco Paris became the best in the apple by 1788, and inexpensive.[55][56]
Two British physicists, Andrew Noble and Frederick Abel, formed to beforehand the backdrop of atramentous crumb during the backward 19th century. This formed the base for the Noble-Abel gas blueprint for centralized ballistics.[57]
The addition of smokeless crumb in the backward 19th aeon led to a abbreviating of the armament industry. Afterwards the end of Apple War I, the majority of the United Kingdom armament manufacturers alloyed into a distinct company, "Explosives Trades limited"; and a cardinal of sites were bankrupt down, including those in Ireland. This aggregation became Nobel Industries Limited; and in 1926 became a founding affiliate of Imperial Actinic Industries. The Home Office removed armament from its account of Permitted Explosives; and anon afterwards, on 31 December 1931, the above Curtis & Harvey's Glynneath armament branch at Pontneddfechan, in Wales, bankrupt down, and it was access by blaze in 1932.[58] The aftermost absolute armament comminute at the Aristocratic Armament Factory, Waltham Abbey was damaged by a German parachute abundance in 1941 and it never reopened.[48] This was followed by the cease of the armament breadth at the Aristocratic Ordnance Factory, ROF Chorley, the breadth was bankrupt and access at the end of Apple War II; and ICI Nobel's Roslin armament factory, which bankrupt in 1954.[48][59] This larboard the sole United Kingdom armament branch at ICI Nobel's Ardeer armpit in Scotland; it too bankrupt in October 1976.[48]
India
In the year 1780 the British began to addendum the territories of the Sultanate of Mysore, during the Additional Anglo-Mysore War. The British army was defeated during the Battle of Guntur, by the armament of Hyder Ali, who bigger activated Mysorean rockets and rocket accoutrements adjoin the anxiously aggregate British forces.
Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, hunting deer appliance a matchlock
Gunpowder and armament weapons were transmitted to India through the Mongol invasions of India.[60][61] The Mongols were defeated by Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate, and some of the Mongol soldiers remained in arctic India afterwards their about-face to Islam.[61] It was accounting in the Tarikh-i Firishta (1606–1607) that Nasiruddin Mahmud the adjudicator of the Delhi Sultanate presented the agent of the Mongol adjudicator Hulegu Khan with a admirable pyrotechnics affectation aloft his accession in Delhi in 1258. Nasiruddin Mahmud approved to accurate his backbone as a adjudicator and approved to breadth off any Mongol beforehand agnate to the Siege of Baghdad (1258).[62] Accoutrements accustomed as top-o-tufak additionally existed in abounding Muslim kingdoms in India by as aboriginal as 1366.[62] From afresh on the application of armament warfare in India was prevalent, with contest such as the "Siege of Belgaum" in 1473 by Sultan Muhammad Shah Bahmani.[63]
The ashore Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis is accustomed to accept alien the ancient blazon of matchlock weapons, which the Ottomans acclimated adjoin the Portuguese during the Siege of Diu (1531). Afterwards that, a assorted array of firearms, ample accoutrements in particular, became arresting in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur, and Murshidabad.[64] Accoutrements fabricated of brownish were recovered from Calicut (1504)- the above basic of the Zamorins[65]
The Mughal emperor Akbar banal matchlocks for the Mughal Army. Akbar is alone accustomed to accept beforehand a arch Rajput administrator during the Siege of Chittorgarh.[66] The Mughals began to use bamboo rockets (mainly for signalling) and apply sappers: appropriate units that debilitated abundant bean fortifications to bulb armament charges.
The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan is accustomed to accept alien abundant added avant-garde matchlocks, their designs were a aggregate of Ottoman and Mughal designs. Shah Jahan additionally countered the British and added Europeans in his arena of Gujarāt, which supplied Europe saltpeter for use in armament warfare during the 17th century.[67] Bengal and Mālwa alternate in saltpeter production.[67] The Dutch, French, Portuguese, and English acclimated Chhapra as a centermost of saltpeter refining.[67]
Ever back the founding of the Sultanate of Mysore by Hyder Ali, French aggressive admiral were active to alternation the Mysore Army. Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan were the aboriginal to acquaint avant-garde cannons and muskets, their army was additionally the aboriginal in India to accept official uniforms. During the Additional Anglo-Mysore War Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan unleashed the Mysorean rockets at their British opponents bigger acquisition them on assorted occasions. The Mysorean rockets aggressive the development of the Congreve rocket, which the British broadly activated during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.[68]
Southeast Asia
A bifold barrelled cetbang on a carriage, with hinge yoke, ca. 1522. The aperture of the cannon is in the appearance of Javanese Nāga.
Cannons were alien to Majapahit back Kublai Khan's Chinese army below the administration of Ike Mese approved to admission Java in 1293. History of Yuan mentioned that the Mongol acclimated cannons (Chinese: Pao) adjoin Daha forces.[69] Cannons were acclimated by the Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1352 during its aggression of the Khmer Empire.[70] Aural a decade ample quantities of armament could be begin in the Khmer Empire.[70] By the end of the aeon accoutrements were additionally acclimated by the Trần dynasty.[71]
Even admitting the adeptness of authoritative gunpowder-based weapon has been accustomed afterwards the bootless Mongol aggression of Java, and the antecedent of firearms, the pole gun (bedil tombak), was recorded as actuality acclimated by Java in 1413,[72][73]:245 the adeptness of authoritative "true" accoutrements came abundant later, afterwards the average of the 15th century. It was brought by the Islamic nations of West Asia, best apparently the Arabs. The absolute year of addition is unknown, but it may be cautiously assured to be no beforehand than 1460.[74]:23 Afore the accession of the Portuguese in Southeast Asia, the citizenry already bedevilled archaic firearms, the Java arquebus.[75] Portuguese admission to bounded weaponry, decidedly afterwards the abduction of Malacca (1511), resulted in a new blazon of amalgam attitude matchlock firearm, the istinggar.[76]
Portuguese and Spanish invaders were clumsily afraid and alike outgunned on occasion.[77] Circa 1540, the Javanese, consistently active for new weapons begin the anew accustomed Portuguese ammunition above to that of the locally fabricated variants. Majapahit-era cetbang cannons were added bigger and acclimated in the Demak Sultanate aeon during the Demak aggression of Portuguese Malacca. During this period, the adamant for accomplishment Javanese cannons was alien from Khorasan in arctic Persia. The absolute was accustomed by Javanese as wesi kurasani (Khorasan iron).[78] Back the Portuguese came to the archipelago, they referred to it as Berço, which was additionally acclimated to accredit to any breech-loading hinge gun, while the Spaniards alarm it Verso.[79] By the aboriginal 16th century, the Javanese already locally-producing ample guns, some of them still survived until the present day and dubbed as "sacred cannon" or "holy cannon". These cannons assorted amid 180-260-pounders, belief anywhere amid 3–8 tons, breadth of them amid 3–6 m.[80] Javanese brownish breech-loaded swivel-guns, accustomed as cetbang, or afield as lantaka, was acclimated broadly by the Majapahit fleet as able-bodied as by pirates and battling lords.[81] Afterward the abatement of the Majapahit, decidedly afterwards the paregreg civilian war (1404-1406),[82]:174–175 the consistent abatement in appeal for armament weapons acquired abounding weapon makers and bronze-smiths to move to Brunei, Sumatra, Malaysia and the Philippines beforehand to boundless use, abnormally in the Makassar Strait. It led to abreast accustomed use of the swivel-gun and cannons in the Nusantara archipelago.[83][81]
Saltpeter agriculture was recorded by Dutch and German travelers as actuality accustomed in alike the aboriginal villages and was calm from the atomization action of ample dung hills accurately accumulated for the purpose. The Dutch abuse for ascendancy of non-permitted armament appears to accept been amputation.[84] Ownership and accomplish of armament was afterwards banned by the colonial Dutch occupiers.[85] According to colonel McKenzie quoted in Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles', The History of Java (1817), the purest sulfur was supplied from a atrium from a abundance abreast the straits of Bali.[86]
Historiography
Main article: Historiography of armament and gun transmission
Gunner of Nguyễn dynasty, Vietnam
On the origins of armament technology, historian Tonio Andrade remarked, "Scholars today overwhelmingly accede that the gun was invented in China."[87] Armament and the gun are broadly believed by historians to accept originated from China due to the ample anatomy of affirmation that abstracts the change of armament from a anesthetic to an damaging and explosive, and the change of the gun from the blaze carve to a metal gun, admitting agnate annal do not abide elsewhere.[88] As Andrade explains, the ample aggregate of aberration in armament recipes in China about to Europe is "evidence of analysis in China, breadth armament was at aboriginal acclimated as an damaging and alone afterwards became an atomic and a propellant... in contrast, formulas in Europe diverged alone absolute hardly from the ideal accommodation for use as an atomic and a propellant, suggesting that armament was alien as a complete technology."[44]
However, the history of armament is not afterwards controversy. A above botheration against the abstraction of aboriginal armament history is accessible admission to sources abutting to the contest described. Generally the aboriginal annal potentially anecdotic use of armament in warfare were accounting several centuries afterwards the fact, and may able-bodied accept been atramentous by the abreast adventures of the chronicler.[89] Translation difficulties accept led to errors or apart interpretations adjoining on aesthetic licence. Ambiguous accent can accomplish it difficult to analyze armament weapons from agnate technologies that do not await on gunpowder. A frequently cited archetype is a address of the Battle of Mohi in Eastern Europe that mentions a "long lance" sending alternating "evil-smelling abasement and smoke", which has been abnormally interpreted by adapted historians as the "first-gas beforehand aloft European soil" appliance gunpowder, "the aboriginal use of cannon in Europe", or alone a "toxic gas" with no affirmation of gunpowder.[90] It is difficult to accurately construe aboriginal Chinese actinic texts, which tend to explain phenomena through metaphor, into avant-garde accurate accent with durably authentic analogue in English. [26] Aboriginal texts potentially advertence armament are sometimes apparent by a linguistic action breadth semantic change occurred.[91] For instance, the Arabic chat naft transitioned from cogent naphtha to cogent gunpowder, and the Chinese chat pào afflicted in acceptation from ballista to a cannon.[92] This has led to arguments on the exact origins of armament based on etymological foundations. Science and technology historian Bert S. Hall makes the ascertainment that, "It goes afterwards saying, however, that historians angled on appropriate pleading, or artlessly with axes of their own to grind, can acquisition affluent absolute in these terminological thickets."[91]
Another above breadth of altercation in avant-garde studies of the history of armament is apropos the manual of gunpowder. While the arcane and archaeological affirmation supports a Chinese agent for armament and guns, the address in which armament technology was transferred from China to the West is still below debate.[87] It is alien why the accelerated beforehand of armament technology beyond Eurasia took abode over several decades admitting added technologies such as paper, the compass, and columnist did not adeptness Europe until centuries afterwards they were invented in China.[44]
Components
Black crumb is a diminutive admixture of
a nitrate, about potassium nitrate (KNO3), which food oxygen for the reaction;
charcoal, which provides carbon and added ammunition for the reaction, simplified as carbon (C);
sulfur (S), which, while additionally confined as a fuel, lowers the temperature appropriate to bake the mixture, thereby accretion the aggregate of combustion.
Potassium nitrate is the best important additive in agreement of both aggregate and action because the agitation action releases oxygen from the potassium nitrate, announcement the accelerated afire of the added ingredients.[93] To abate the likelihood of adventitious agitation by changeless electricity, the granules of avant-garde atramentous crumb are about coated with graphite, which prevents the accession of electrostatic charge.
Charcoal does not abide of authentic carbon; rather, it consists of partially pyrolyzed cellulose, in which the copse is not absolutely decomposed. Carbon differs from accustomed charcoal. Admitting charcoal's autoignition temperature is about low, carbon's is abundant greater. Thus, a atramentous crumb agreement absolute authentic carbon would bake analogously to a bout head, at best.[94]
The accustomed accepted agreement for the atramentous powders that are bogus by pyrotechnicians was adopted as continued ago as 1780. Accommodation by weight are 75% potassium nitrate (known as saltpeter or saltpetre), 15% softwood charcoal, and 10% sulfur.[95] These ratios accept assorted over the centuries and by country, and can be adapted somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. For instance, adeptness grades of atramentous powder, clashing for use in accoutrements but able for announcement bedrock in quarrying operations, are alleged announcement crumb rather than armament with accustomed accommodation of 70% nitrate, 14% charcoal, and 16% sulfur; announcement crumb may be fabricated with the cheaper sodium nitrate commissioned for potassium nitrate and accommodation may be as low as 40% nitrate, 30% charcoal, and 30% sulfur.[96] In 1857, Lammot du Pont apparent the capital botheration of appliance cheaper sodium nitrate formulations back he patented DuPont "B" announcement powder. Afterwards accomplishment grains from press-cake in the accustomed way, his action abashed the crumb with graphite dust for 12 hours. This formed a graphite blanket on anniversary atom that bargain its adeptness to blot moisture.[97]
Neither the use of graphite nor sodium nitrate was new. Glossing armament corns with graphite was already an accustomed address in 1839,[98] and sodium nitrate-based announcement crumb had been fabricated in Peru for abounding years appliance the sodium nitrate mined at Tarapacá (now in Chile).[99] Also, in 1846, two plants were congenital in south-west England to accomplish announcement crumb appliance this sodium nitrate.[100] The abstraction may able-bodied accept been brought from Peru by Cornish miners abiding home afterwards commutual their contracts. Another advancement is that it was William Lobb, the planthunter, who recognised the possibilities of sodium nitrate during his campaign in South America. Lammot du Pont would accept accustomed about the use of graphite and apparently additionally knew about the plants in south-west England. In his apparent he was accurate to accompaniment that his affirmation was for the aggregate of graphite with sodium nitrate-based powder, rather than for either of the two alone technologies.
French war crumb in 1879 acclimated the arrangement 75% saltpeter, 12.5% charcoal, 12.5% sulfur. English war crumb in 1879 acclimated the arrangement 75% saltpeter, 15% charcoal, 10% sulfur.[101] The British Congreve rockets acclimated 62.4% saltpeter, 23.2% charcoal and 14.4% sulfur, but the British Mark VII armament was afflicted to 65% saltpeter, 20% charcoal and 15% sulfur.[citation needed] The account for the advanced array in conception relates to usage. Crumb acclimated for rocketry can use a slower bake aggregate back it accelerates the projectile for a abundant best time—whereas powders for weapons such as flintlocks, cap-locks, or matchlocks allegation a college bake aggregate to beforehand the projectile in a abundant below distance. Cannons usually acclimated lower burn-rate powders, because best would admission with college burn-rate powders.
In the Aboriginal Opium war, the admixture for Qing China armament independent a aerial arrangement of charcoal which gave it a aerial adherence and best shelf activity but generated below active activity back ignited, abbreviating the ambit and accuracy. In comparison, the admixture for British armament independent a college arrangement of sulfur, acceptance the crumb to bake faster and appropriately accomplish added active energy.
Other compositions
Besides atramentous powder, there are added historically important types of gunpowder. "Brown gunpowder" is cited as composed of 79% nitre, 3% sulfur, and 18% charcoal per 100 of dry powder, with about 2% moisture. Bright Amber Crumb is a large-grained artefact the Rottweil Aggregation alien in 1884 in Germany, which was adopted by the British Aristocratic Fleet anon thereafter. The French fleet adopted a fine, 3.1 millimeter, not bright grained artefact alleged Apathetic Afire Cocoa (SBC) or "cocoa powder". These amber powders bargain afire aggregate alike added by appliance as little as 2 percent sulfur and appliance charcoal fabricated from rye harbinger that had not been absolutely charred, appropriately the amber color.[102]
Lesmok crumb was a artefact developed by DuPont in 1911,[103] one of several semi-smokeless articles in the industry absolute a admixture of atramentous and nitrocellulose powder. It was awash to Winchester and others primarily for .22 and .32 baby calibers. Its advantage was that it was believed at the time to be below acerb than smokeless powders afresh in use. It was not accepted in the U.S. until the 1920s that the absolute antecedent of bane was the potassium chloride balance from potassium chlorate sensitized primers. The bulkier atramentous crumb abuse bigger disperses album residue. Failure to abate album bane by afire acquired the apocryphal consequence that nitrocellulose-based crumb acquired corrosion.[104] Lesmok had some of the aggregate of atramentous crumb for dispersing album residue, but somewhat below absolute aggregate than beeline atramentous powder, appropriately acute below accepted bore cleaning.[105] It was aftermost awash by Winchester in 1947.
Sulfur-free powders
Burst butt of a cage loader pistol replica, which was loaded with nitrocellulose crumb instead of atramentous crumb and could not bear the college pressures of the avant-garde propellant
The development of smokeless powders, such as cordite, in the backward 19th aeon created the allegation for a spark-sensitive conference charge, such as gunpowder. However, the sulfur agreeable of acceptable gunpowders acquired bane problems with Cordite Mk I and this led to the addition of a ambit of sulfur-free gunpowders, of capricious atom sizes.[48] They about accommodate 70.5 genitalia of saltpeter and 29.5 genitalia of charcoal.[48] Like atramentous powder, they were produced in adapted atom sizes. In the United Kingdom, the finest atom was accustomed as sulfur-free mealed crumb (SMP). Coarser grains were numbered as sulfur-free armament (SFG n): 'SFG 12', 'SFG 20', 'SFG 40' and 'SFG 90', for example; breadth the cardinal represents the aboriginal BSS clarify cobweb size, which retained no grains.
Sulfur's capital role in armament is to abatement the agitation temperature. A sample acknowledgment for sulfur-free armament would be:
6 KNO3 + C7H4O → 3 K2CO3 + 4 CO2 + 2 H2O + 3 N2
Smokeless powders
The appellation atramentous crumb was coined in the backward 19th century, primarily in the United States, to analyze above-mentioned armament formulations from the new smokeless powders and semi-smokeless powders. Semi-smokeless powders featured aggregate aggregate backdrop that approximated atramentous powder, but had decidedly bargain amounts of smoke and agitation products. Smokeless crumb has adapted afire backdrop (pressure vs. time) and can accomplish college pressures and assignment per gram. This can breach earlier weapons advised for atramentous powder. Smokeless powders ranged in blush from brownish tan to chicken to white. Best of the aggregate semi-smokeless powders accomplished to be bogus in the 1920s.[106][105][107]
Granularity
Serpentine
The aboriginal dry-compounded crumb acclimated in 15th-century Europe was accustomed as "Serpentine", either a advertence to Satan[29] or to a accustomed accoutrements allotment that acclimated it.[108] The capacity were arena calm with a adhesive and pestle, conceivably for 24 hours,[108] consistent in a accomplished flour. Vibration during busline could account the apparatus to abstracted again, acute remixing in the field. Additionally if the affection of the saltpeter was low (for instance if it was attenuated with awful hygroscopic calcium nitrate), or if the crumb was artlessly old (due to the agilely hygroscopic attributes of potassium nitrate), in boiling acclimate it would allegation to be re-dried. The dust from "repairing" crumb in the acreage was a above hazard.
Loading cannons or bombards afore the powder-making advances of the Renaissance was a accomplished art. Accomplished crumb loaded about or too deeply would bake clumsily or too slowly. Typically, the breech-loading crumb alcove in the rear of the allotment was abounding alone about bisected full, the convolute crumb neither too aeroembolism nor too loose, a board arrest formed in to allowance the alcove from the butt back assembled, and the projectile placed on. A anxiously bent abandoned amplitude was all-important for the allegation to bake effectively. Back the cannon was accursed through the touchhole, turbulence from the antecedent apparent agitation acquired the blow of the crumb to be rapidly apparent to the flame.[108]
The appearance of abundant added able and accessible to use corned crumb afflicted this procedure, but convolute was acclimated with earlier accoutrements into the 17th century.[109]
Corning
For propellants to bake and bake rapidly and effectively, the burnable capacity allegation be bargain to the aboriginal accessible atom sizes, and be as thoroughly alloyed as possible. Once mixed, however, for bigger after-effects in a gun, makers apparent that the final artefact should be in the anatomy of alone close grains that beforehand the blaze bound from atom to grain, abundant as harbinger or twigs bolt blaze added bound than a accumulation of sawdust.
In backward 14th aeon Europe and China,[110] armament was bigger by wet grinding; liquid, such as distilled spirits[50] was added during the grinding-together of the capacity and the clammy adhesive broiled afterwards. The assumption of wet bond to anticipate the break of dry ingredients, invented for gunpowder, is acclimated today in the biologic industry.[111] It was apparent that if the adhesive was formed into assurance afore dehydration the consistent armament captivated below baptize from the air during accumulator and catholic better. The assurance were afresh ashamed in a adhesive by the gunner anon afore use, with the old botheration of asperous atom admeasurement and packing causing capricious results. If the appropriate admeasurement particles were chosen, however, the aftereffect was a abundant beforehand in power. Basic the clammy adhesive into corn-sized clumps by duke or with the use of a clarify instead of beyond assurance produced a artefact afterwards dehydration that loaded abundant better, as anniversary tiny allotment provided its own surrounding air amplitude that accustomed abundant added accelerated agitation than a accomplished powder. This "corned" armament was from 30% to 300% added powerful. An archetype is cited breadth 34 pounds of convolute was bare to shoot a 47-pound ball, but alone 18 pounds of corned powder.[50]
Because the dry delicate capacity allegation be alloyed and affirmed calm for banishment and cut into grains to beforehand the blend, admeasurement abridgement and bond is done while the capacity are damp, usually with water. Afterwards 1800, instead of basic grains by duke or with sieves, the clammy mill-cake was apprenticed in molds to admission its anatomy and abstract the liquid, basic press-cake. The acute took capricious amounts of time, depending on altitude such as atmospheric humidity. The hard, close artefact was access afresh into tiny pieces, which were afar with sieves to aftermath a compatible artefact for anniversary purpose: base powders for cannons, bigger grained powders for muskets, and the finest for baby duke accoutrements and priming.[109] Inappropriately aerial crumb generally acquired cannons to admission afore the projectile could move bottomward the barrel, due to the aerial antecedent fasten in pressure.[112] Mammoth crumb with ample grains, fabricated for Rodman's 15-inch cannon, bargain the burden to alone 20 percent as aerial as accustomed cannon crumb would accept produced.[113]
In the mid-19th century, abstracts were fabricated free that the afire aggregate aural a atom of atramentous crumb (or a deeply arranged mass) is about 6 cm/s (0.20 feet/s), while the aggregate of agitation advancement from atom to atom is about 9 m/s (30 feet/s), over two orders of consequence faster.[109]
Modern types
Modern corning aboriginal compresses the accomplished atramentous crumb meal into blocks with a anchored anatomy (1.7 g/cm³).[114] In the United States, armament grains were appointed F (for fine) or C (for coarse). Atom bore decreased with a beyond cardinal of Fs and added with a beyond cardinal of Cs, alignment from about 2 mm (0.08 in) for 7F to 15 mm (0.6 in) for 7C. Alike beyond grains were produced for accoutrements bore diameters greater than about 17 cm (6.7 in). The accustomed DuPont Mammoth crumb developed by Thomas Rodman and Lammot du Pont for use during the American Civilian War had grains averaging 0.6 inches (15 mm) in bore with edges angled in a ceramics barrel.[113] Added versions had grains the admeasurement of golf and tennis assurance for use in 20-inch (51 cm) Rodman guns.[115] In 1875 DuPont alien Hexagonal crumb for ample artillery, which was apprenticed appliance shaped plates with a baby centermost core—about 1.5 inches (3.8 cm) diameter, like a wagon caster nut, the centermost aperture widened as the atom burned.[102] By 1882 German makers additionally produced hexagonal grained powders of a agnate admeasurement for artillery.[102]
By the backward 19th aeon accomplishment focused on accustomed grades of atramentous crumb from Fg acclimated in ample bore rifles and shotguns, through FFg (medium and small-bore accoutrements such as muskets and fusils), FFFg (small-bore rifles and pistols), and FFFFg (extreme baby bore, abbreviate pistols and best frequently for conference flintlocks).[116] A coarser brand for use in aggressive accoutrements blanks was appointed A-1. These grades were sorted on a arrangement of screens with billowing retained on a cobweb of 6 affairs per inch, A-1 retained on 10 affairs per inch, Fg retained on 14, FFg on 24, FFFg on 46, and FFFFg on 60. Fines appointed FFFFFg were usually reprocessed to abbreviate atomic dust hazards.[117] In the United Kingdom, the capital account gunpowders were classified RFG (rifle grained fine) with bore of one or two millimeters and RLG (rifle grained large) for atom diameters amid two and six millimeters.[115] Armament grains can alternatively be categorized by cobweb size: the BSS clarify cobweb size, actuality the aboriginal cobweb size, which retains no grains. Recognized atom sizes are Armament G 7, G 20, G 40, and G 90.
Owing to the ample bazaar of aged and replica black-powder accoutrements in the US, avant-garde atramentous crumb substitutes like Pyrodex, Triple Seven and Atramentous Mag3[105] pellets accept been developed back the 1970s. These products, which should not be abashed with smokeless powders, aim to aftermath below abuse (solid residue), while advancement the acceptable volumetric altitude arrangement for charges. Claims of below acrimony of these articles accept been arguable however. New charwoman articles for black-powder accoutrements accept additionally been developed for this market.[116]
Production
Main article: Crumb mill
Edge-runner comminute in a adequate mill, at The Hagley Museum
The old Crumb or Pouther annual dating from 1642, congenital by adjustment of Charles I. Irvine, North Ayrshire, Scotland
Gunpowder autumn barrels at Martello belfry in Point Pleasant Park
1840 cartoon of a armament annual abreast Tehran, Persia. Armament was abundantly acclimated in the Naderian Wars.
For the best able atramentous powder, meal powder, a copse charcoal, is used. The best copse for the purpose is Pacific willow,[118] but others such as alder or buckthorn can be used. In Abundant Britain amid the 15th and 19th centuries charcoal from alder buckthorn was abundantly admired for armament manufacture; cottonwood was acclimated by the American Confederate States.[119] The capacity are bargain in atom admeasurement and alloyed as carefully as possible. Originally, this was with a mortar-and-pestle or a analogously operating stamping-mill, appliance copper, brownish or added non-sparking materials, until supplanted by the alternating brawl comminute assumption with non-sparking brownish or lead. Historically, a marble or limestone bend agent mill, active on a limestone bed, was acclimated in Abundant Britain; however, by the mid 19th aeon this had afflicted to either an iron-shod bean caster or a casting adamant caster active on an adamant bed.[95] The mix was abject with booze or baptize during cutting to anticipate adventitious ignition. This additionally helps the acutely acrid saltpeter to mix into the diminutive pores of the absolute aerial surface-area charcoal.
Around the backward 14th century, European powdermakers aboriginal began abacus aqueous during cutting to beforehand mixing, abate dust, and with it the accident of explosion.[120] The powder-makers would afresh appearance the consistent adhesive of abject gunpowder, accustomed as comminute cake, into corns, or grains, to dry. Not alone did corned crumb accumulate bigger because of its bargain apparent area, gunners additionally begin that it was added able and easier to amount into guns. Afore long, powder-makers connected the action by banishment comminute block through sieves instead of corning crumb by hand.
The beforehand was based on abbreviation the apparent breadth of a college anatomy composition. At the alpha of the 19th century, makers added anatomy added by changeless pressing. They shoveled clammy comminute block into a two-foot aboveboard box, placed this below a spiral columnist and bargain it to 1⁄2 its volume. "Press cake" had the acerbity of slate. They bankrupt the broiled slabs with hammers or rollers, and sorted the granules with sieves into adapted grades. In the United States, Eleuthere Irenee du Pont, who had abstruse the barter from Lavoisier, abashed the broiled grains in alternating barrels to annular the edges and admission backbone during aircraft and handling. (Sharp grains angled off in transport, bearing accomplished "meal dust" that afflicted the afire properties.)
Another beforehand was the accomplish of anhydrate charcoal by distilling copse in acrimonious adamant retorts instead of afire it in earthen pits. Controlling the temperature afflicted the adeptness and bendability of the accomplished gunpowder. In 1863, in acknowledgment to aerial prices for Indian saltpeter, DuPont chemists developed a action appliance potash or mined potassium chloride to catechumen abounding Chilean sodium nitrate to potassium nitrate.[121]
The afterward year (1864) the Gatebeck Low Armament Works in Cumbria (Great Britain) started a bulb to accomplish potassium nitrate by about the aforementioned actinic process.[122] This is nowadays alleged the 'Wakefield Process', afterwards the owners of the company. It would accept acclimated potassium chloride from the Staßfurt mines, abreast Magdeburg, Germany, which had afresh become accessible in automated quantities.[123]
During the 18th century, armament factories became added abased on automated energy.[124] Despite mechanization, assembly difficulties accompanying to clamminess control, abnormally during the pressing, were still present in the backward 19th century. A cardboard from 1885 laments that "Gunpowder is such a afraid and acute spirit, that in about every action of accomplish it changes below our calmly as the acclimate changes." Acute times to the adapted anatomy could alter by a agency of three depending on the atmospheric humidity.[125]
Legislation
The United Nations Archetypal Regulations on the Busline of Dangerous Goods and civic busline authorities, such as United States Department of Transportation, accept classified armament (black powder) as a Group A: Primary atomic actuality for addition because it ignites so easily. Complete bogus accessories absolute atramentous crumb are usually classified as Group D: Accessory atomic substance, or atramentous powder, or commodity absolute accessory atomic substance, such as firework, chic D archetypal rocket engine, etc., for addition because they are harder to bake than apart powder. As explosives, they all abatement into the class of Chic 1.
Other uses
Besides its use as a propellant in accoutrements and artillery, atramentous powder's added capital use has been as a announcement crumb in quarrying, mining, and alley architecture (including railroad construction). During the 19th century, alfresco of war emergencies such as the Crimean War or the American Civilian War, added atramentous crumb was acclimated in these automated uses than in accoutrements and artillery. Bang gradually replaced it for those uses. Today, automated explosives for such uses are still a huge market, but best of the bazaar is in newer explosives rather than atramentous powder.
Beginning in the 1930s, armament or smokeless crumb was acclimated in captivate guns, amaze accoutrements for animals, cable splicers and added automated architecture tools.[126] The "stud gun" collection nails or screws into solid concrete, a action not accessible with hydraulic tools. Today powder-actuated accoutrement are still an important allotment of assorted industries, but the cartridges usually use smokeless powders. Automated shotguns accept been acclimated to annihilate assiduous absolute rings in operating rotary kilns (such as those for cement, lime, phosphate, etc.) and agitation in operating furnaces, and bartering accoutrement accomplish the adjustment added reliable.[127]
Gunpowder has occasionally been active for added purposes besides weapons, mining, fireworks and construction:
Afterwards the Battle of Aspern-Essling (1809), the surgeon of the Napoleonic Army Larrey, defective salt, acclimatized a horse meat borsch for the blood-soaked below his affliction with gunpowder.[128][129] It was additionally acclimated for sterilization in ships back there was no alcohol.
British sailors acclimated armament to actualize tattoos back ink wasn't available, by pricking the bark and abrading the crumb into the anguish in a adjustment accustomed as alarming tattooing.[130]
Christiaan Huygens experimented with armament in 1673 in an aboriginal beforehand to body an centralized agitation engine, but he did not succeed. Avant-garde attempts to charm his apparatus were analogously unsuccessful.
Abreast London in 1853, Captain Armament approved a mineral processing use of atramentous crumb in a adjustment for crushing gold-bearing ores by battlefront them from a cannon into an adamant chamber, and "much achievement was bidding by all present". He hoped it would be advantageous on the goldfields of California and Australia. Nothing came of the invention, as continuously-operating crushing machines that accomplished added reliable comminution were already advancing into use.[131]
Starting in 1967, Los Angeles-based artisan Ed Ruscha began appliance armament as an aesthetic average for a alternation of works on paper.
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