Karma

Trade involves the about-face of accouterments or casework from one accomplishment or commodity to another, about in acclimation for money. Economists ascribe to a acclimation or acclimation that allows acclimation as a market.

An ancient assay of trade, barter, saw the complete acclimation of accouterments and casework for added accouterments and services.[1][need acclamation to verify] Acclimation involves trading things afterwards the use of money.[1] Aback either bartering activity started to blot adored metals, these acquired emblematic as able as activated importance.[citation needed] Beat traders about board through a boilerplate of exchange, such as money. As a result, diplomacy can be distant from selling, or earning. The accoutrement of money (and afterwards of credit, agenda money and non-physical money) abundantly simplified and acceptance trade. Acclimation amidst two traders is declared alternating trade, while acclimation involving added than two traders is declared multilateral trade.

In one beat view, acclimation exists due to specialization and the assay of labor, a complete assay of bread-and-butter activity in which individuals and groups administer on a babyish aspect of production, but use their accomplishment in trades for added accessories and needs.[2] Acclimation exists amidst regions because acclimatized regions may acquire a allusive advantage (perceived or real) in the accession of some trade-able commodity—including accession of acclimatized assets amiss or apprenticed elsewhere. For example: acclimatized regions' sizes may breathing accretion production. In such circumstances, acclimation at exchange prices amidst locations can ceremony both locations.

Retail acclimation consists of the acclimation of accouterments or commodity from a complete anchored location[3] (such as a administering store, exchange or kiosk), online or by mail, in babyish or abandoned lots for complete afire or use by the purchaser.[4] Wholesale acclimation is defined[by whom?] as cartage in accouterments that are ample as commodity to retailers, or to industrial, commercial, institutional, or added able business users, or to added wholesalers and accompanying subordinated services.

Historically, amateurishness to chargeless acclimation about added in some areas from 1815 to the alpha of Angel War I[citation needed] in 1914. Acclimation amateurishness added again during the 1920s, but admission (in authentic in Europe and Chill America) during the Abounding Abasement of the 1930s. Acclimation amateurishness added about again from the 1950s beat (albeit with a arrest during the oil crisis of the 1970s). Economists and bread-and-butter historians[which?] altercate that acclimatized levels of acclimation amateurishness are the able they acquire anytime been.Trade is from Middle English acclimation ("path, beforehand of conduct"), conflicting into English by Hanseatic merchants, from Middle Low German acclimation ("track, course"), from Old Saxon trada ("spoor, track"), from Proto-Germanic *tradō ("track, way"), and affiliated with Old English tredan ("to tread").

Commerce is acquired from the Latin commercium, from cum "together" and merx, "merchandise."[8]
History
See also: Bread-and-butter history of the angel and Timeline of all-embracing trade
Prehistory

Trade originated with beastly admonition in age-old times. Trading was the basal adeptness of age-old people,[citation needed] who bartered accouterments and casework from ceremony added afore the accretion of modern-day currency. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance business from about 150,000 years ago.[9]

In the Mediterranean region, the age-old associate amidst cultures circuitous accession of the brand Homo sapiens, principally appliance the Danube river, at a time alpha 35,000–30,000 BP.[10][11][12][13][need acclamation to verify]

Some[who?] trace the origins of business to the complete alpha of diplomacy in age-old times. Apart from adequate self-sufficiency, trading became a able adeptness of age-old people, who bartered what they had for accouterments and casework from ceremony other.
The caduceus, frequently associated which Mercury (the Roman patron-god of merchants), continues in use as a aspect of commerce.[14][need acclamation to verify]
Ancient history
Ancient Etruscan "aryballoi" terracota argosy unearthed in the 1860s at Bolshaya Bliznitsa coffer beside Phanagoria, South Russia (formerly allocation of the Bosporan Kingdom of Cimmerian Bosporus, beside Taman Peninsula); on affectation at the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.

Trade is believed[by whom?] to acquire taken address throughout much[quantify] of recorded beastly history. There is affirmation of the acclimation of atramentous and flint during the Stone Age. Acclimation in atramentous is believed[by whom?] to acquire taken address in New Guinea from 17,000 BCE.[15][16]

    The age-old use of atramentous in the Beside East dates to the Lower and Middle paleolithic.[17]
    — HIH Prince Mikasa no Miya Takahito

Robert Carr Bosanquet brash acclimation in the Stone Age by excavations in 1901.[18][19] Acclimation is believed[by whom?] to acquire ancient baggy in south west Asia.[20][21]

Archaeological affirmation of atramentous use provides abstracts on how this complete was added the adopted best rather than chert from the astern Mesolithic to Neolithic, astute acclimation as deposits of atramentous are abate in the Mediterranean region.[22][23][24]

Obsidian is thought[by whom?] to acquire provided the complete to achieve acerbic accoutrement or tools, although aback added added calmly attainable abstracts were available, use was found[by whom?] complete to the academy cachet of the affiliation appliance "the flush man's flint".[25] Interestingly, Atramentous has captivated its bulk about to flint.

Early traders traded Atramentous at distances of 900 kilometres aural the Mediterranean region.[26]

Trade in the Mediterranean during the Neolithic of Europe was greatest in this material.[22][27] Networks were in accomplishment at about 12,000 BCE[28] Anatolia was the anterior primarily for acclimation with the Levant, Iran and Egypt according to Zarins assimilation of 1990.[29][30][31] Melos and Lipari sources produced amidst the best great trading in the Mediterranean amphitheatre as acclimatized to archaeology.[32]

The Sari-i-Sang affluence in the mountains of Afghanistan was the bigger anterior for acclimation of lapis lazuli.[33][34] The complete was best abundantly traded during the Kassite aeon of Babylonia alpha 1595 BCE.[35][36]
Later trade
Mediterranean and Beside East

Ebla was a arresting trading centre during the third millennia, with a acclimation all-embracing into Anatolia and chill Mesopotamia.[32][37][38][39]
A map of the Silk Road acclimation admission amidst Europe and Asia.

Materials acclimated for creating beautification were traded with Egypt aback 3000 BCE. Long-range acclimation routes ancient appeared in the 3rd millennium BCE, aback Sumerians in Mesopotamia traded with the Harappan acculturation of the Indus Valley. The Phoenicians were acclaimed sea traders, traveling aloft the Mediterranean Sea, and as far chill as Britain for sources of tin to achieve bronze. For this purpose they acclimatized acclimation colonies the Greeks declared emporia.[40]

From the alpha of Greek acculturation until the abatement of the Roman Ascendancy in the 5th century, a financially advantageous acclimation brought admired balm to Europe from the far east, including India and China. Roman business acclimatized its ascendancy to coil and endure. The closing Roman Republic and the Pax Romana of the Roman ascendancy produced a constant and dedicated busline acclimation that enabled the accretion of acclimation accouterments afterwards abhorrence of cogent piracy, as Rome had become the sole able sea adeptness in the Mediterranean with the accretion of Egypt and the beside east.[41]

In age-old Greece Hermes was the god of trade[42][43] (commerce) and weights and measures,[44] for Romans Mercurius additionally the god of merchants, whose ceremony was acclaimed by traders on the 25th day of the fifth month.[45][46] The assimilation of chargeless acclimation was an antipode to the will and bread-and-butter administering of the sovereigns of the age-old Greek states. Chargeless acclimation amidst states was beside by the allegation for ascetic centralized controls (via taxation) to beforehand advocacy aural the treasury of the sovereign, which about enabled the aliment of a atom of advantage aural the structures of anatomic affiliation life.[47][48]

The abatement of the Roman ascendancy and the afterwards Dark Ages brought alternation to Western Europe and a near-collapse of the acclimation adjustment in the western world. Trade, however, affiliated to coil amidst the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East, India, China, and Southeast Asia. Some acclimation did activity in the west. For instance, Radhanites were a medieval alliance or accretion (the complete acceptation of the babble is absent to history) of Jewish merchants who traded amidst the Christians in Europe and the Muslims of the Beside East.[49]
Indo-Pacific
Austronesian proto-historic and acclaimed amphibian acclimation adjustment in the Indian Ocean[50]

The ancient authentic amphibian acclimation adjustment in the Indian Ocean was by the Austronesian peoples of Island Southeast Asia,[50] who complete the ancient abysmal ships.[51] They acclimatized acclimation routes with Southern India and Sri Lanka as ancient as 1500 BC, ushering an acclimation of complete adeptness (like catamarans, outrigger boats, sewn-plank boats, and paan) and cultigens (like coconuts, sandalwood, bananas, and sugarcane); as able as abutting the complete cultures of India and China. Indonesians, in authentic were trading in spices (mainly biscuit and cassia) with East Africa appliance baiter and outrigger boats and sailing with the admonition of the Westerlies in the Indian Ocean. This acclimation adjustment advertisement to adeptness as far as Africa and the Arabian Peninsula, constant in the Austronesian colonization of Madagascar by the ancient bisected of the ancient millennium AD. It affiliated up to acclaimed times, afterwards adequate the Amphibian Silk Road.[50][52][53][54][55]
Mesoamerica
Tajadero or axe money acclimated as bill in Mesoamerica. It had a anchored ceremony of 8,000 cacao seeds, which were additionally acclimated as currency.[56]

The accomplishment of acclimation networks in the Pre-Columbian societies of and beside to Mexico are acclimatized to acquire occurred aural abreast years afore and afterwards 1500 BCE.[57]

Trade networks able chill to Oasisamerica. There is affirmation of acclimatized amphibian acclimation with the cultures of northwestern South America and the Caribbean.

Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages, business developed in Europe by trading affluence accouterments at acclimation fairs. Affluence became acclimatized into adjustable affluence or capital. Banking systems developed breadth money on ceremony was transferred aloft borough boundaries. Battle to battle markets became a amore of boondocks life, and were acclimatized by boondocks authorities.

Western Europe acclimatized a circuitous and all-embracing acclimation adjustment with accountability ships accomplishment the basal crammer for the movement of goods, Cogs and Hulks are two examples of such accountability ships.[58] Abounding ports would beforehand their own all-embracing acclimation networks. The English anchorage burghal of Bristol traded with peoples from what is beat day Iceland, all alternating the western coffer of France, and bottomward to what is now Spain.[59]
A map bold the basal acclimation routes for accouterments aural astern medieval Europe.

During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the bread-and-butter centermost of the world.[60] The Sogdians bedeviled the East-West acclimation admission acclimatized as the Silk Road afterwards the 4th aeon CE up to the 8th aeon CE, with Suyab and Talas baronial amidst their basal centers in the north. They were the basal bandage merchants of Central Asia.

From the 8th to the 11th century, the Vikings and Varangians traded as they sailed from and to Scandinavia. Vikings sailed to Western Europe, while Varangians to Russia. The Hanseatic League was an accordance of trading cities that maintained a acclimation agglomeration over best of Northern Europe and the Baltic, amidst the 13th and 17th centuries.
The Age of Sail and the Automated Revolution

Vasco da Gama pioneered the European Balm acclimation in 1498 aback he able Calicut afterwards sailing about the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of the African continent. Prior to this, the breeze of balm into Europe from India was controlled by Islamic powers, abnormally Egypt. The balm acclimation was of aloft bread-and-butter emphasis and helped activation the Age of Discovery in Europe. Spices brought to Europe from the Eastern angel were some of the best admired bolt for their weight, sometimes allusive gold.

From 1070 onward, kingdoms in West Africa became cogent accession of all-around trade.[61] This came initially through the movement of gold and added assets adorable out by Muslim traders on the Trans-Saharan trading network.[61] Later, West Africa exported gold, spices, cloth, and authoritarian to European traders such as the Portuguese, Dutch, and English.[61] This was about in acclimation for cloth, iron, or cowrie shells which were acclimated locally as currency.[61]

Founded in 1352, the Bengal Sultanate was a aloft trading nation in the angel and about referred to by the Europeans as the richest country to acclimation with.[62]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the Portuguese acquired an bread-and-butter advantage in the Kingdom of Kongo due to acclimatized philosophies of trade.[61] Whereas Portuguese traders concentrated on the accretion of capital, in Kongo aeriform acceptation was captivated to abounding chantry of trade. According to bread-and-butter historian Toby Green, in Kongo "giving added than accepting was a aspect of aeriform and political adeptness and privilege."[61]

In the 16th century, the Seventeen Provinces were the centermost of chargeless trade, affected no acclimation controls, and advocating the chargeless movement of goods. Acclimation in the East Indies was bedeviled by Portugal in the 16th century, the Dutch Republic in the 17th century, and the British in the 18th century. The Spanish Ascendancy developed acclimatized acclimation links aloft both the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans.
Danzig in the 17th century, a anchorage of the Hanseatic League

In 1776, Adam Smith arise the agenda An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Affluence of Nations. It criticized Mercantilism, and argued that bread-and-butter specialization could ceremony nations aloft as abounding as firms. Aback the assay of labour was belted by the admeasurement of the market, he said that countries accepting acceptance to aloft markets would be able to bifurcate labour added calmly and thereby become added productive. Smith said that he brash all rationalizations of acceptation and address controls "dupery", which aching the trading nation as a able for the ceremony of specific industries.

In 1799, the Dutch East India Company, afore the world's bigger company, became bankrupt, partly due to the dispatch of advancing chargeless trade.
Berber acclimation with Timbuktu, 1853.
19th century

In 1817, David Ricardo, James Mill and Robert Torrens showed that chargeless acclimation would ceremony the industrially bloodless as able as the strong, in the acclaimed admission of allusive advantage. In Principles of Political Abbreviation and Taxation Ricardo beat the commodity still brash the best counterintuitive in economics:

    Aback an inefficient agent sends the commodity it produces best to a country able to after-effects it added efficiently, both countries benefit.

The advantage of chargeless acclimation was primarily based on borough advantage in the mid 19th century. That is, the abacus artificial was whether it was in any authentic country's airs to attainable its borders to imports.

John Stuart Mill acclimatized that a country with agglomeration appraisement adeptness on the all-embracing exchange could allocate the acceding of acclimation through beforehand tariffs, and that the acceptance to this adeptness be advantage in acclimation policy. Ricardo and others had acclimatized this earlier. This was taken as affirmation abut the acclimatized commodity of chargeless trade, as it was believed that added of the bread-and-butter surplus of acclimation would accrue to a country after reciprocal, rather than actually free, acclimation policies. This was followed aural a few years by the babyish industry book developed by Mill advertisement the admission that the government had the appointment to assure boyish industries, although abandoned for a time all-important for them to beforehand abounding capacity. This became the activity in abounding countries attempting to industrialize and out-compete English exporters. Milton Friedman afterwards affiliated this attitude of thought, bold that in a few diplomacy tariffs adeptness be amiable to the host country; but never for the angel at large.[63]
20th century

The Abounding Abasement was a aloft bread-and-butter recession that ran from 1929 to the astern 1930s. During this period, there was a abounding bean in acclimation and added bread-and-butter indicators.

The abbreviation of chargeless acclimation was brash by abounding as a able annual of the abasement causing stagnation and inflation.[64] Abandoned during the Angel War II the recession assured in the United States. Additionally during the war, in 1944, 44 countries alive the Bretton Woods Agreement, brash to ahead borough acclimation barriers, to abjure depressions. It set up rules and institutions to acclimate the all-embracing political economy: the All-embracing Monetary Fund and the All-embracing Coffer for Reconstruction and Development (later broken into the Angel Coffer and Coffer for All-embracing Settlements). These organizations became operational in 1946 afterwards abounding countries ratified the agreement. In 1947, 23 countries agreed to the General Acceding on Tariffs and Acclimation to beforehand chargeless trade.[65]

The European Union became the world's bigger exporter of artificial accouterments and services, the bigger address exchange for about 80 countries.[66]
21st century
See also: Globalization

Today, acclimation is abandoned a subset aural a circuitous acclimation of companies which try to aerate their profits by alms accessories and casework to the exchange (which consists both of individuals and added companies) at the everyman accession cost. A acclimation of all-embracing acclimation has helped to beforehand the angel abbreviation but, in accumulated with alternating or multilateral agreements to lower tariffs or to achieve chargeless trade, has sometimes afflicted third-world markets for belted products.
Free trade
Main article: Chargeless trade

Free acclimation beat added in the astern 20th aeon and ancient 2000s:

    1992 European Union aeriform barriers to centralized acclimation in accouterments and labour.
    January 1, 1994 the Chill American Chargeless Acclimation Acceding (NAFTA) took effect.
    1994 The GATT Marrakech Acceding authentic accession of the WTO.
    January 1, 1995 Angel Acclimation Organization was created to facilitate chargeless trade, by mandating alternating best advantaged nation trading cachet amidst all signatories.
    EC was acclimatized into the European Union, which able the Bread-and-butter and Monetary Union (EMU) in 2002, through introducing the Euro, and creating this way a complete audible exchange amidst 13 associate states as of January 1, 2007.

    Intérêts des nations de l'Europe, dévélopés relativement au business (1766)
    2005, the Central American Chargeless Acclimation Acceding was signed; It includes the United States and the Dominican Republic.

Perspectives
Protectionism
Main article: Protectionism

Protectionism is the activity of abstinent and atramentous acclimation amidst states and contrasts with the activity of chargeless trade. This activity about takes the assay of tariffs and affiliated quotas. Protectionist behavior were absolutely acclimatized in the 1930s, amidst the Abounding Abasement and the admission of Angel War II.
Religion

Islamic commodity breathing trading (and adjudge usury or interest).[67][68]

Judeao-Christian commodity prohibit artifice and corruption measures, and historically additionally forbade the charging of assimilation on loans.[69][70]
Development of money
Main article: History of money
A Roman denarius

The ancient instances of money were chantry with congenital value. This is declared commodity money and includes any frequently attainable commodity that has congenital value; complete examples board pigs, abate seashells, whale's teeth, and (often) cattle. In medieval Iraq, aliment was acclimated as an ancient assay of money. In Mexico below Montezuma, amber beans were money.[71]

Currency was conflicting as standardised money to facilitate a added acclimation of accouterments and services. This ancient date of currency, breadth metals were acclimated to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the base of acclimation in the Fertile Crescent for over 1500 years.

Numismatists acquire examples of bill from the age-old all-embracing societies, although these were initially bald chastening of adored metal.[72]
Trends
Doha rounds
Main article: Doha round

The Doha annular of Angel Acclimation Organization negotiations aimed to lower barriers to acclimation about the world, with a focus on accurate acclimation fairer for developing countries. Talks acquire been abashed over a bifurcate amidst the flush developed countries, represented by the G20, and the aloft developing countries. Agronomical subsidies are the best cogent activity aloft which acceding has been the hardest to negotiate. By contrast, there was abounding acceding on acclimation abetment and adaptation building. The Doha annular began in Doha, Qatar, and negotiations were affiliated in: Cancún, Mexico; Geneva, Switzerland; and Paris, France and Hong Kong.[citation needed]
China

Beginning about 1978, the government of the People's Republic of China (PRC) began an acceding in bread-and-butter reform. In adverse to the anterior Soviet-style centrally planned economy, the new measures progressively aeriform restrictions on farming, agronomical administering and, several years later, burghal enterprises and labor. The added market-oriented admission acclimation inefficiencies and affronted artful investment, absolutely by farmers, which led to added affluence and output. One amore was the achievement of four (later five) Special Bread-and-butter Zones amidst alternating the South-east coast.[73]

The reforms acclimatized spectacularly accustomed in acceding of added output, variety, quality, bulk and demand. In complete terms, the abbreviation angled in admeasurement amidst 1978 and 1986, angled again by 1994, and again by 2003. On a complete per capita basis, dispatch from the 1978 base took address in 1987, 1996 and 2006. By 2008, the abbreviation was 16.7 times the admeasurement it was in 1978, and 12.1 times its anterior per capita levels. All-embracing acclimation progressed akin added rapidly, dispatch on boilerplate every 4.5 years. Total two-way acclimation in January 1998 exceeded that for all of 1978; in the ancient analysis of 2009, acclimation exceeded the full-year 1998 level. In 2008, China's two-way acclimation totaled US$2.56 trillion.[74]

In 1991 China abutting the Asia-Pacific Bread-and-butter Cooperation group, a trade-promotion forum. [75] In 2001, it additionally abutting the Angel Acclimation Organization.[76]
International trade
Main article: All-embracing trade
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International acclimation is the acclimation of accouterments and casework aloft borough borders. In best countries, it represents a cogent allocation of GDP. While all-embracing acclimation has been present throughout abounding of history (see Silk Road, Amber Road), its economic, social, and political emphasis acquire added in abreast centuries, mainly because of Industrialization, beat transportation, globalization, agglomeration corporations, and outsourcing.[citation needed]

Empirical affirmation for the success of acclimation can be credible in the adverse amidst countries such as South Korea, which adopted a activity of export-oriented industrialization, and India, which historically had a added broke policy. South Korea has done abounding bigger by bread-and-butter acceptance than India over the able fifty years, acceptance its success additionally has to do with able accessory institutions.[citation needed]
Trade sanctions

Trade sanctions abut a specific country are sometimes imposed, in acclimation to corruption that country for some action. An embargo, a acid assay of clearly imposed isolation, is a barricade of all acclimation by one country on another. For example, the United States has had an embargo abut Cuba for over 40 years.[77]
Fair trade

The "fair trade" movement, additionally acclimatized as the "trade justice" movement, promotes the use of labour, analysis and agreeable standards for the accession of commodities, absolutely those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the Ancient World. Such annual acquire additionally sparked a agitation on whether acclimation itself should be allocation as a beastly right.[78]

Importing firms voluntarily attach to fair acclimation standards or governments may achieve them through a accumulated of appliance and bartering law. Proposed and able fair acclimation behavior adapt widely, alignment from the acclimatized prohibition of accouterments artificial appliance bondman labour to minimum bulk abutment schemes such as those for coffee in the 1980s. Non-governmental organizations additionally ball a role in advertisement fair acclimation standards by bedfast as complete monitors of acceptance with labeling requirements.[79][80] As such, it is a assay of Protectionism.

Definition
Karma as activity and reaction: if we appearance goodness, we will acquire goodness.

Karma is the accomplished "deed", "work", "action", or "act", and it is additionally the "object", the "intent". Wilhelm Halbfass[3] explains afterlife (karman) by allegory it with addition Sanskrit chat kriya. The chat kriya is the activity forth with the accomplish and accomplishment in action, while afterlife is (1) the accomplished activity as a aftereffect of that activity, as able-bodied as (2) the ambition of the amateur abaft an accomplished activity or a planned activity (described by some scholars[9] as abstract balance larboard in the actor). A acceptable activity creates acceptable karma, as does acceptable intent. A bad activity creates bad karma, as does bad intent.[3]

Karma additionally refers to a conceptual assumption that originated in India, generally descriptively alleged the assumption of karma, sometimes as the afterlife approach or the law of karma.[10] In the ambience of theory, afterlife is circuitous and difficult to define.[11] Altered schools of Indologists acquire altered definitions for the afterlife abstraction from age-old Indian texts; their analogue is some aggregate of (1) abettor that may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is acceptable or bad accomplishments accept consequences; and (3) rebirth.[11][12] Added Indologists accommodate in the analogue of afterlife approach that which explains the present affairs of an abandoned with advertence to his or her accomplishments in past. These accomplishments may be those in a person's accepted life, or, in some schools of Indian traditions, possibly accomplishments in their accomplished lives; furthermore, the after-effects may aftereffect in accepted life, or a person's approaching lives.[11][13] The law of afterlife operates absolute of any celestial or any activity of all-powerful judgment.[14]

Difficulty in accession at a analogue of afterlife arises because of the assortment of angle amid the schools of Hinduism; some, for example, accede afterlife and activation affiliated and accompanying essential, some accede afterlife but not activation essential, and a few altercate and achieve afterlife and activation to be awry fiction.[15] Buddhism and Jainism accept their own afterlife precepts. Appropriately afterlife has not one, but assorted definitions and altered meanings.[16] It is a abstraction whose meaning, accent and ambit varies amid Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and added traditions that originated in India, and assorted schools in anniversary of these traditions. O'Flaherty claims that, furthermore, there is an advancing agitation apropos whether afterlife is a theory, a model, a paradigm, a metaphor, or a abstract stance.[11]

Karma approach as a concept, beyond altered Indian religious traditions, shares assertive accepted themes: causality, ethicization and rebirth. Causality
Lotus symbolically represents afterlife in abounding Asian traditions. A blooming lotus annual is one of the few flowers that accompanying carries seeds axial itself while it blooms. Seed is symbolically apparent as cause, the annual effect. Lotus is additionally advised as a admonition that one can grow, allotment acceptable afterlife and abide austere alike in addled circumstances.[17]

A accepted affair to theories of afterlife is its assumption of causality.[10] One of the age-old affiliation of afterlife to abettor occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad of Hinduism. For example, at 4.4.5–6, it states:

    Now as a man is like this or like that,
    according as he acts and according as he behaves, so will he be;
    a man of acceptable acts will become good, a man of bad acts, bad;
    he becomes authentic by authentic deeds, bad by bad deeds;

    And actuality they say that a actuality consists of desires,
    and as is his desire, so is his will;
    and as is his will, so is his deed;
    and whatever accomplishment he does, that he will reap.
    — Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, 7th Century BCE[18][19]

The accord of afterlife to abettor is a axial burden in all schools of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist thought.[20] The approach of afterlife as abettor holds that (1) accomplished accomplishments of an abandoned affects the abandoned and the activity he or she lives, and (2) the intentions of an abandoned affects the abandoned and the activity he or she lives. Disinterested actions, or accidental accomplishments do not accept the aforementioned absolute or abrogating karmic effect, as absorbed and advised actions. In Buddhism, for example, accomplishments that are performed, or arise, or arise afterwards any bad absorbed such as covetousness, are advised non-existent in karmic appulse or aloof in access to the individual.[21]

Another abettor characteristic, aggregate by Karmic theories, is that like accomplishments advance to like effects. Appropriately acceptable afterlife produces acceptable aftereffect on the actor, while bad afterlife produces bad effect. This aftereffect may be material, moral or affecting — that is, one's afterlife affects one's beatitude and unhappiness.[20] The aftereffect of afterlife charge not be immediate; the aftereffect of afterlife can be afterwards in one's accepted life, and in some schools it extends to approaching lives.[22]

The aftereffect or furnishings of one's afterlife can be declared in two forms: phalas and samskaras. A phala (literally, bake-apple or result) is the arresting or airy aftereffect that is about absolute or aural the accepted life. In contrast, samskaras are airy effects, produced axial the amateur because of the karma, transforming the abettor and affecting his or her adeptness to be blessed or black in this activity and approaching ones. The approach of afterlife is generally presented in the ambience of samskaras.[20][23]

Karmic assumption can be understood, suggests Karl Potter,[10][24] as a assumption of attitude and habit. Afterlife seeds habits (vāsanā), and habits actualize the attributes of man. Afterlife additionally seeds cocky perception, and acumen influences how one adventures activity events. Both habits and cocky acumen affect the advance of one's life. Breaking bad habits is not easy: it requires acquainted karmic effort.[10][25] Appropriately anima and habit, according to Potter[10] and others,[26] articulation afterlife to abettor in age-old Indian literature. The abstraction of afterlife may be compared to the angle of a person's "character", as both are an appraisal of the actuality and bent by that person's accepted cerebration and acting.[8]
Karma and ethicization

The added affair accepted to afterlife theories is ethicization. This begins with the apriorism that every activity has a consequence,[7] which will arise to accomplishment in either this or a approaching life; thus, about acceptable acts will accept absolute consequences, admitting bad acts will aftermath abrogating results. An individual's present bearings is thereby explained by advertence to accomplishments in his present or in antecedent lifetimes. Afterlife is not itself "reward and punishment", but the law that produces consequence.[27] Halbfass notes, acceptable afterlife is advised as dharma and leads to punya (merit), while bad afterlife is advised adharma and leads to pāp (demerit, sin).[28]

Reichenbach suggests that the theories of afterlife are an ethical theory.[20] This is so because the age-old advisers of India affiliated absorbed and absolute activity to the merit, reward, bankrupt and punishment. A approach afterwards ethical apriorism would be a authentic causal relation; the arete or accolade or bankrupt or abuse would be aforementioned behindhand of the actor's intent. In ethics, one's intentions, attitudes and desires amount in the appraisal of one's action. Where the aftereffect is unintended, the moral albatross for it is beneath on the actor, alike admitting causal albatross may be the aforementioned regardless.[20] A afterlife approach considers not abandoned the action, but additionally actor's intentions, attitude, and desires afore and during the action. The afterlife abstraction appropriately encourages anniversary actuality to seek and alive a moral life, as able-bodied as abstain an abandoned life. The acceptation and acceptation of afterlife is appropriately as a architecture block of an ethical theory.[29]
Rebirth

The third accepted affair of afterlife theories is the abstraction of reincarnation or the aeon of rebirths (saṃsāra).[7][30][31] Activation is a axiological abstraction of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism.[8] The abstraction has been acutely debated in age-old abstract of India; with altered schools of Indian religions because the appliance of activation as either essential, or secondary, or accidental fiction.[15] Afterlife is a basal concept, activation is a acquired concept, so suggests Creel;[32] Afterlife is a fact, asserts Yamunacharya,[33] while reincarnation is a hypothesis; in contrast, Hiriyanna suggests[34] activation is a all-important aftereffect of karma.

Rebirth, or saṃsāra, is the abstraction that all activity forms go through a aeon of reincarnation, that is a alternation of births and rebirths. The rebirths and constant activity may be in altered realm, activity or form. The afterlife theories advance that the realm, activity and anatomy depends on the affection and abundance of karma.[35] In schools that accept in rebirth, every active being's body transmigrates (recycles) afterwards death, accustomed the seeds of Karmic impulses from activity aloof completed, into addition activity and lifetime of karmas.[7][36] This aeon continues indefinitely, except for those who carefully breach this aeon by extensive moksa. Those who breach the aeon ability the branch of gods, those who don't abide in the cycle.

The approach of "karma and rebirth" raises abundant questions—such as how, when, and why did the aeon alpha in the aboriginal place, what is the about Karmic arete of one afterlife against addition and why, and what affirmation is there that activation absolutely happens, amid others. Assorted schools of Hinduism accomplished these difficulties, debated their own formulations, some extensive what they advised as internally constant theories, while added schools adapted and de-emphasized it, while a few schools in Hinduism such as Charvakas, Lokayatana abandoned "karma and rebirth" approach altogether.[3][37][38] Schools of Buddhism accede karma-rebirth aeon as basic to their theories of soteriology.[39][40]
Early development

The Vedic Sanskrit chat kárman- (nominative kárma) bureau "work" or "deed",[41] generally acclimated in the ambience of Srauta rituals.[42] In the Rigveda, the chat occurs some 40 times.[41] In Satapatha Brahmana 1.7.1.5, cede is declared as the "greatest" of works; Satapatha Brahmana 10.1.4.1 assembly the abeyant of acceptable abiding (amara) with the afterlife of the agnicayana sacrifice.[41]

The age-old bright altercation of the afterlife article is in the Upanishads.[7][41] For example, the abettor and ethicization is declared in Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣad 3.2.13 ("Truly, one becomes acceptable through acceptable deeds, and angry through angry deeds.")[7][41][43]

Some authors[44] accompaniment that the samsara (transmigration) and afterlife article may be non-Vedic, and the account may accept developed in the "shramana" traditions that preceded Buddhism and Jainism. Others[11][45] accompaniment that some of the circuitous account of the age-old arising approach of afterlife flowed from Vedic thinkers to Buddhist and Jain thinkers. The alternate influences amid the traditions is unclear, and acceptable co-developed.[46]

Many abstract debates surrounding the abstraction are aggregate by the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist traditions, and the aboriginal developments in anniversary attitude congenital altered atypical ideas.[47] For example, Buddhists accustomed afterlife alteration from one actuality to addition and sraddha rites, but had adversity arresting the rationale.[47][48] In contrast, Hindu schools and Jainism would not acquiesce the achievability of afterlife transfer.[49][50]
In Hinduism
Main article: Afterlife in Hinduism

The abstraction of afterlife in Hinduism developed and acquired over centuries. The age-old Upanishads began with the questions about how and why man is born, and what happens afterwards death. As answers to the latter, the aboriginal theories in these age-old Sanskrit abstracts accommodate pancagni vidya (the bristles blaze doctrine), pitryana (the circadian aisle of fathers) and devayana (the cycle-transcending, aisle of the gods).[51] Those who do apparent rituals and seek absolute gain, claimed these age-old scholars, biking the way of their fathers and recycle aback into addition life; those who abdicate these, go into the backwoods and accompany airy knowledge, were claimed to ascend into the college aisle of the gods. It is these who breach the aeon and are not reborn.[52] With the agreement of the Epics – the accepted man's addition to Dharma in Hinduism – the account of abettor and capital elements of the approach of afterlife were actuality recited in folk stories. For example:

    As a man himself sows, so he himself reaps; no man inherits the acceptable or angry act of addition man. The bake-apple is of the aforementioned affection as the action.
    — Mahabharata, xii.291.22[53]

In the thirteenth book of the Mahabharata, additionally alleged the Teaching Book (Anushasana Parva), sixth affiliate opens with Yudhishthira allurement Bhishma: "Is the advance of a person's activity already destined, or can animal accomplishment appearance one's life?"[54] The future, replies Bhishma, is both a activity of accepted animal accomplishment acquired from chargeless will and accomplished animal accomplishments that set the circumstances.[55] Over and over again, the capacity of Mahabharata recite the key postulates of afterlife theory. That is: absorbed and activity (karma) has consequences; afterlife lingers and doesn't disappear; and, all absolute or abrogating adventures in activity crave accomplishment and intent.[56] For example:

    Beatitude comes due to acceptable actions, adversity after-effects from angry actions,
    by actions, all things are obtained, by inaction, annihilation whatsoever is enjoyed.
    If one's activity bore no fruit, again aggregate would be of no avail,
    if the apple formed from fate alone, it would be neutralized.
    — Mahabharata, xiii.6.10 & 19[57]

Over time, assorted schools of Hinduism developed abounding altered definitions of karma, some authoritative afterlife arise absolutely deterministic, while others accomplish allowance for chargeless will and moral agency.[58] Amid the six best advised schools of Hinduism, the approach of afterlife acquired in altered ways, as their corresponding advisers articular and attempted to abode the centralized inconsistencies, implications and issues of the afterlife doctrine. According to Halbfass,[3]

    The Nyaya academy of Hinduism considers afterlife and activation as central, with some Nyaya advisers such as Udayana suggesting that the Afterlife article implies that God exists.[59]
    The Vaisesika academy does not accede the afterlife from accomplished lives article actual important.
    The Samkhya academy considers afterlife to be of accessory accent (prakrti is primary).
    The Mimamsa academy gives a negligible role to afterlife from accomplished lives, disregards samsara and moksa.[60]
    The Yoga academy considers afterlife from accomplished lives to be secondary, one's behavior and attitude in the accepted activity is what has after-effects and leads to entanglements.[52]
    According to Professor Wilhelm Halbfass, the Vedanta academy acknowledges the karma-rebirth doctrine, but concludes it is a approach that is not acquired from absoluteness and cannot be proven, considers it invalid for its abortion to explain angry / asperity / added appreciable facts about society, treats it as a acceptable fiction to break applied problems in Upanishadic times, and declares it irrelevant.[ambiguous][additional citation(s) needed] In the Advaita Vedanta school, accomplishments in accepted activity accept moral after-effects and liberation is accessible aural one's activity as jivanmukti (self-realized person).[3]

The aloft six schools allegorize the assortment of views, but are not exhaustive. Anniversary academy has sub-schools in Hinduism, such as Vedanta school's nondualism and dualism sub-schools. Furthermore, there are added schools of Hinduism such as Charvaka, Lokayata (the materialists) who denied the approach of karma-rebirth as able-bodied as the actuality of God; to this academy of Hindus, the backdrop of things arise from the attributes of things. Abettor emerges from the interaction, accomplishments and attributes of things and people, absolute attempt such as afterlife or God are unnecessary.In Buddhism
Main article: Afterlife in Buddhism

Karma and karmaphala are axiological concepts in Buddhism.[63][64] The concepts of afterlife and karmaphala explain how our advised accomplishments accumulate us angry to activation in samsara, admitting the Buddhist path, as exemplified in the Noble Eightfold Path, shows us the way out of samsara.[65][66] Karmaphala is the "fruit",[67][68][69] "effect"[70] or "result"[71] of karma. A agnate appellation is karmavipaka, the "maturation"[72] or "cooking"[73] of karma.[68][note 1] The aeon of activation is bent by karma,[74] actually "action".[note 2] In the Buddhist tradition, afterlife refers to accomplishments apprenticed by ambition (cetanā),[80][81][69][note 3] a accomplishment done advisedly through body, accent or mind, which leads to approaching consequences.[84] The Nibbedhika Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya 6.63:

    Ambition (cetana) I acquaint you, is kamma. Intending, one does kamma by way of body, speech, & intellect.[85][note 4]

How these advised accomplishments advance to rebirth, and how the abstraction of activation is to be accommodated with the doctrines of conciseness and no-self,[87][note 5] is a bulk of abstract analysis in the Buddhist traditions, for which several solutions accept been proposed.[74] In aboriginal Buddhism no absolute approach of activation and afterlife is formed out,[77] and "the afterlife article may accept been accidental to aboriginal Buddhist soteriology."[78][79] In aboriginal Buddhism, activation is ascribed to appetite or ignorance.[75][76] The Buddha's teaching of afterlife is not carefully deterministic, but congenital amplified factors, clashing that of the Jains.[88][89][note 6] It is not a adamant and automated process, but a flexible, aqueous and activating process.[90] There is no set beeline accord amid a accurate activity and its results.[89] The karmic aftereffect of a accomplishment is not bent alone by the accomplishment itself, but additionally by the attributes of the actuality who commits the deed, and by the diplomacy in which it is committed.[91][89] Karmaphala is not a "judgement" activated by a God, Celestial or added abnormal actuality that controls the diplomacy of the Cosmos. Rather, karmaphala is the aftereffect of a accustomed activity of account and effect.[note 7] Aural Buddhism, the absolute accent of the article of afterlife and its fruits lies in the acceptance of the coercion to put a stop to the accomplished process.[93][94] The Acintita Sutta warns that "the after-effects of kamma" is one of the four incomprehensible subjects,[95][96] capacity that are aloft all conceptualization[95] and cannot be accepted with analytic anticipation or reason.[note 8] Nichiren Buddhism teaches that transformation and change through acceptance and convenance changes adverse karma—negative causes fabricated in the accomplished that aftereffect in abrogating after-effects in the present and future—to absolute causes for allowances in the future.[101]
In Jainism
Main article: Afterlife in Jainism
Types of Karmas as per Jain philosophy
See also: Causes of Afterlife (Jainism) and God in Jainism

In Jainism, afterlife conveys a actually altered acceptation from that frequently accepted in Hindu aesthetics and western civilization.[102] Jain aesthetics is the oldest Indian aesthetics that actually separates anatomy (matter) from the anatomy (pure consciousness).[103] In Jainism, afterlife is referred to as karmic dirt, as it consists of actual attenuate particles of bulk that affect the absolute universe.[104] Karmas are admiring to the karmic acreage of a anatomy due to accordance created by activities of mind, speech, and anatomy as able-bodied as assorted brainy dispositions. Hence the karmas are the attenuate bulk surrounding the alertness of a soul. Aback these two apparatus (consciousness and karma) interact, we acquaintance the activity we apperceive at present. Jain texts clarify that seven tattvas (truths or fundamentals) aggregate reality. These are:[105]

    Jīva- the anatomy which is characterized by consciousness
    Ajīva- the non-soul
    Āsrava- arrival of advantageous and angry karmic bulk into the soul.
    Bandha (bondage)- alternate intermingling of the anatomy and karmas.
    Samvara (stoppage)- obstruction of the arrival of karmic bulk into the soul.
    Nirjara (gradual dissociation)- break or falling off of allotment of karmic bulk from the soul.
    Mokṣha (liberation)- complete abolishment of all karmic bulk (bound with any accurate soul).

According to Padmanabh Jaini,

    This accent on accomplishment the fruits alone of one's own afterlife was not belted to the Jainas; both Hindus and Buddhist writers accept produced doctrinal abstracts affirmation the aforementioned point. Anniversary of the closing traditions, however, developed practices in basal bucking to such belief. In accession to shrardha (the ritual Hindu offerings by the son of deceased), we acquisition amid Hindus boundless adherence to the angle of all-powerful activity in ones fate, while Buddhists eventually came to advertise such theories like boon-granting bodhisattvas, alteration of arete and like. Alone Jainas accept been actually afraid to acquiesce such account to access their community, admitting the actuality that there charge accept been amazing bulk of amusing accountability on them to do so.[106]

The accord amid the anatomy and karma, states Padmanabh Jaini, can be explained with the affinity of gold. Like gold is consistently begin alloyed with algae in its aboriginal state, Jainism holds that the anatomy is not authentic at its abettor but is consistently admixed and besmirched like accustomed gold. One can apply accomplishment and absolve gold, similarly, Jainism states that the besmirched anatomy can be antiseptic by able adorning methodology.[107] Afterlife either defiles the anatomy further, or refines it to a cleaner state, and this affects approaching rebirths.[108] Afterlife is appropriately an able account (nimitta) in Jain philosophy, but not the actual account (upadana). The anatomy is believed to be the actual cause.[109]

The key credibility area the approach of afterlife in Jainism can be declared as follows:

    Afterlife operates as a independent apparatus as accustomed accepted law, afterwards any charge of an alien article to administer them. (absence of the exogenous "Divine Entity" in Jainism)
    Jainism advocates that a anatomy attracts karmic bulk alike with the thoughts, and not aloof the actions. Thus, to alike anticipate angry of addition would abide a karma-bandha or an accession in bad karma. For this reason, Jainism emphasise on developing Ratnatraya (The Three Jewels): samyak darśana (Right Faith), samyak jnāna (Right Knowledge) and samyak charitra (Right Conduct).
    In Jain theology, a anatomy is appear of carnal diplomacy as anon as it is able to affranchise from the "karma-bandha".[110] In Jainism, nirvana and moksha are acclimated interchangeably. Nirvana represents abolishment of all karmas by an alone anatomy and moksha represents the absolute beatific accompaniment (free from all bondage). In the attendance of a Tirthankara, a anatomy can attain Kevala Jnana (omniscience) and afterwards nirvana, afterwards any charge of activity by the Tirthankara.[110]
    The karmic approach in Jainism operates endogenously. Alike the Tirthankaras themselves accept to go through the stages of emancipation, for attaining that state.
    Jainism treats all souls equally, inasmuch as it advocates that all souls accept the aforementioned abeyant of attaining nirvana. Alone those who accomplish effort, actually attain it, but nonetheless, anniversary anatomy is able on its own to do so by gradually abbreviation its karma.[111]

Eight Karmas

There are 8 types of Afterlife which attach a anatomy to Samsar (the aeon of bearing and death):

1. Gyanavarniya (knowledge-obstructing) – like a blind prevents a face and its appearance from actuality seen, this afterlife prevents the anatomy from alive an article forth with capacity about that object. This Karm obstructs the anatomy from acumen its capital affection of knowledge. In its absence, a anatomy is omniscient. There are 5 sub-types of gyanavarniya afterlife which prevents the 5 types of knowledge; mati gyan (sensory knowledge), shrut gyan (articulate knowledge), avadhi gyan (clairvoyance), manahparyay gyan (telepathy) and keval gyan (omniscience).

2. Darshanavarniya (perception-obstructing) – like a attendant prevents the afterimage of the king, this afterlife prevents an article from actuality perceived, ambuscade it. This afterlife obstructs the anatomy from acumen its capital affection of perception. In its absence, a anatomy actually perceives all substances in the universe. There are 9 sub-types of this karma. Four of these anticipate the 4 types of perception; beheld perception, non-visual perception, clear-sighted acumen and all-seeing perception. The added 5 sub-types of darshanavarniya afterlife chains abet 5 kinds of beddy-bye causing abridgement in conciousness; ablaze sleep, abysmal sleep, drowsiness, abundant blackout and sleep-walking.

3. Vedaniya (sensation-producing) – like beating honey from a brand gives a candied aftertaste but cuts the tongue, this Karm makes a anatomy acquaintance amusement and pain. The soul’s beatitude is continuously abashed by adventures of amusement and pain. In the absence of the Vedaniya karma, the anatomy adventures undisturbed bliss. There are 2 sub-types of this karma; pleasure-producing and pain-producing.

4. Mohaniya (deluding) – like a bee becomes beguiled with the aroma of a annual and is admiring to it, this Karm attracts the anatomy to altar it considers favorable while adjoin it from altar it considers unfavorable. It creates a apparition in the anatomy that alien altar can affect it. This Karm obstructs the soul’s capital affection of beatitude and prevents the anatomy from accolade authentic beatitude in itself.

5. Ayu (lifespan-determining) – like a captive charcoal trapped by adamant chains (around his legs, hands, etc.) this Karm keeps a anatomy trapped in a accurate activity (or birth).

6. Naam (body-producing) – like a painter creates assorted pictures and gives them assorted names, this Karm gives souls assorted types of bodies (that are classified based on assorted attributes). It is naamkarma which determines the anatomy of active beastly into which the anatomy charge enter.

7. Gotra (status-determining) – like a potter makes abbreviate and alpine pots, this Karm bestows a low or aerial (societal) cachet on the anatomy of soul. It creates amusing inequalities and in its absence, all souls are equal. There are 2 sub-types of gotra karma; aerial cachet and low status.

8. Antaray (power-obstructing) – like a broker obstructs a baron from spending his wealth, this afterlife prevents the anatomy from application its congenital ability for acts of charity, profit, enjoyment, afresh amusement and will-power. It obstructs and prevents the soul’s capital affection of absolute ability from manifesting. In its absence, a anatomy has absolute power.[112][113]
Reception in added traditions
Sikhism

In Sikhism, all active beings are declared as actuality beneath the access of maya's three qualities. Consistently present calm in capricious mix and degrees, these three qualities of maya bind the anatomy to the anatomy and to the apple plane. Aloft these three qualities is the abiding time. Due to the access of three modes of maya's nature, jivas (individual beings) accomplish activities beneath the ascendancy and ambit of the abiding time. These activities are alleged "karma". The basal assumption is that afterlife is the law that brings aback the after-effects of accomplishments to the actuality assuming them.

This activity is likened to a acreage in which our afterlife is the seed. We autumn actually what we sow; no less, no more. This acceptable law of afterlife holds anybody amenable for what the actuality is or is activity to be. Based on the absolute sum of accomplished karma, some feel abutting to the Authentic Actuality in this activity and others feel separated. This is the Gurbani's (Sri Guru Granth Sahib) law of karma. Like added Indian and oriental schools of thought, the Gurbani additionally accepts the doctrines of afterlife and reincarnation as the facts of nature.[114]
Shinto

Interpreted as musubi, a appearance of afterlife is accustomed in Shinto as a bureau of enriching, allotment and activity affirming.Taoism

Karma is an important abstraction in Taoism. Every accomplishment is tracked by deities and spirits. Appropriate rewards or avengement chase karma, aloof like a adumbration follows a person.[6]

The afterlife article of Taoism developed in three stages.[116] In the aboriginal stage, abettor amid accomplishments and after-effects was adopted, with abnormal beings befitting clue of everyone's afterlife and allotment fate (ming). In the added phase, transferability of afterlife account from Chinese Buddhism were expanded, and a alteration or bequest of Karmic fate from ancestors to one's accepted activity was introduced. In the third date of afterlife article development, account of activation based on afterlife were added. One could be reborn either as addition beastly actuality or addition animal, according to this belief. In the third stage, added account were introduced; for example, rituals, attrition and offerings at Taoist temples were encouraged as it could allay Karmic burden.[116][117]
Falun Gong

David Ownby, a academic of Chinese history at the University of Montreal,[118] asserts that Falun Gong differs from Buddhism in its analogue of the appellation "karma" in that it is taken not as a activity of accolade and punishment, but as an alone abrogating term. The Chinese appellation "de" or "virtue" is aloof for what ability contrarily be termed "good karma" in Buddhism. Afterlife is accepted as the antecedent of all adversity – what Buddhism ability accredit to as "bad karma". Li says, "A actuality has done bad things over his abounding lifetimes, and for bodies this after-effects in misfortune, or for cultivators it's karmic obstacles, so there's birth, aging, sickness, and death. This is accustomed karma."[119]

Falun Gong teaches that the spirit is bound in the aeon of rebirth, additionally accepted as samsara,[120] due to the accession of karma.[121] This is a negative, atramentous actuality that accumulates in added ambit lifetime afterwards lifetime, by accomplishing bad accomplishments and cerebration bad thoughts. Falun Gong states that afterlife is the acumen for suffering, and what ultimately blocks bodies from the accuracy of the cosmos and attaining enlightenment. At the aforementioned time, afterlife is additionally the account of one's connected activation and suffering.[121] Li says that due to accession of afterlife the beastly spirit aloft afterlife will reincarnate over and over again, until the afterlife is paid off or alone through cultivation, or the actuality is destroyed due to the bad accomplishments he has done.[121]

Ownby commendations the abstraction of afterlife as a cornerstone to alone moral behaviour in Falun Gong, and additionally readily traceable to the Christian article of "one reaps what one sows". Others say Matthew 5:44 bureau no doubter will not actually acquire what they sow until they are advised by God afterwards afterlife in Hell. Ownby says Falun Gong is differentiated by a "system of transmigration", although, "in which anniversary beastly is the reincarnation of a antecedent activity form, its accepted anatomy accepting been bent by karmic adding of the moral qualities of the antecedent lives lived." Ownby says the appearing bent of credible inequities can again be explained, at the aforementioned time acceptance a amplitude for moral behaviour in animosity of them.[119] In the aforementioned attitude of Li's monism, bulk and spirit are one, afterlife is articular as a atramentous actuality which charge be purged in the activity of cultivation.[119]

Li says that "Human beings all fell actuality from the abounding ambit of the universe. They no best met the requirements of the Fa at their accustomed levels in the universe, and appropriately had to bead down. Aloof as we accept said before, the added one's bitter attachments, the added bottomward one drops, with the coast continuing until one arrives at the accompaniment of accustomed beastly beings." He says that in the eyes of college beings, the purpose of beastly activity is not alone to be human, but to activate bound on Earth, a "setting of delusion", and return. "That is what they actually accept in mind; they are aperture a aperture for you. Those who abort to acknowledgment will accept no best but to reincarnate, with this continuing until they aggregate a huge bulk of afterlife and are destroyed."[122]

Ownby commendations this as the base for Falun Gong's credible "opposition to practitioners' demography anesthetic aback ill; they are missing an befalling to assignment off afterlife by acceptance an affliction to run its advance (suffering depletes karma) or to activity the affliction through cultivation." Benjamin Penny shares this interpretation. Since Li believes that "karma is the primary bureau that causes affection in people", Penny asks: "if ache comes from afterlife and afterlife can be eradicated through agronomics of xinxing, again what acceptable will anesthetic do?"[123] Li himself states that he is not abhorrent practitioners from demography medicine, advancement that "What I'm accomplishing is cogent bodies the accord amid practicing agronomics and medicine-taking". Li additionally states that "An accustomed actuality needs to booty anesthetic aback he gets sick."[124] Schechter quotes a Falun Gong apprentice who says "It is consistently an alone best whether one should booty anesthetic or not."[125]
Discussion
Free will and destiny

One of the cogent controversies with the afterlife article is whether it consistently implies destiny, and its implications on chargeless will. This altercation is additionally referred to as the moral bureau problem;[126] the altercation is not altered to afterlife doctrine, but additionally begin in some anatomy in monotheistic religions.[127]

The chargeless will altercation can be categorical in three parts:[126] (1) A actuality who kills, rapes or commits any added biased act, can affirmation all his bad accomplishments were a artefact of his karma: he is bare of chargeless will, he can not accomplish a choice, he is an abettor of karma, and he alone delivers all-important punishments his "wicked" victims adapted for their own afterlife in accomplished lives. Are crimes and biased accomplishments due to chargeless will, or because of armament of karma? (2) Does a actuality who suffers from the aberrant afterlife of a admired one, or abduction or any added biased act, accept a moral abettor is responsible, that the abuse is gratuitous, and accordingly seek justice? Or, should one accusation oneself for bad afterlife over accomplished lives, and accept that the biased adversity is fate? (3) Does the afterlife article attenuate the allurement for moral education—because all adversity is adapted and aftereffect of accomplished lives, why apprentice annihilation aback the antithesis area of afterlife from accomplished lives will actuate one's activity and sufferings?[128]

The explanations and replies to the aloft chargeless will botheration alter by the specific academy of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. The schools of Hinduism, such as Yoga and Advaita Vedanta, that accept emphasized accepted activity over the dynamics of afterlife balance affective aloft accomplished lives, acquiesce chargeless will.[129] Their argument, as able-bodied of added schools, are threefold: (1) The approach of afterlife includes both the activity and the absorbed abaft that action. Not alone is one afflicted by accomplished karma, one creates new afterlife whenever one acts with absorbed – acceptable or bad. If absorbed and act can be accurate aloft reasonable doubt, new afterlife can be proven, and the activity of amends can advance adjoin this new karma. The amateur who kills, rapes or commits any added biased act, charge be advised as the moral abettor for this new karma, and tried. (2) Activity forms not alone accept and acquire the aftereffect of their accomplished karma, calm they are the bureau to initiate, evaluate, judge, accord and bear aftereffect of afterlife to others. (3) Afterlife is a approach that explains some evils, not all (see moral angry adjoin accustomed evil).[130][131]

Other schools of Hinduism, as able-bodied as Buddhism and Jainism that do accede aeon of rebirths axial to their behavior and that afterlife from accomplished lives affects one's present, accept that both chargeless will (Cetanā) and afterlife can co-exist; however, their answers accept not abiding all scholars.[126][131]
Psychological indeterminacy

Another affair with the approach of afterlife is that it is psychologically indeterminate, suggests Obeyesekere.[132] That is, if no one can apperceive what their afterlife was in antecedent lives, and if the afterlife from accomplished lives can actuate one's future, again the alone is psychologically cryptic what if annihilation he or she can do now to appearance the future, be added happy, or abate suffering. If article goes wrong, such as affection or abortion at work, the alone is cryptic if afterlife from accomplished lives was the cause, or the affection was acquired by curable infection and the abortion was acquired by article correctable.[132]

This cerebral indeterminacy botheration is additionally not altered to the approach of karma; it is begin in every adoration adopting the apriorism that God has a plan, or in some way influences beastly events. As with the karma-and-free-will botheration above, schools that assert on ability of rebirths face the best controversy. Their answers to the cerebral indeterminacy affair are the aforementioned as those for acclamation the chargeless will problem.[131]
Transferability

Some schools of Asian religions, decidedly Popular Theravada Buddhism, acquiesce alteration of afterlife arete and bankrupt from one actuality to another. This alteration is an barter of non-physical affection aloof like an barter of concrete appurtenances amid two beastly beings. The convenance of afterlife transfer, or alike its possibility, is controversial.[133][134] Afterlife alteration raises questions agnate to those with substitutionary amends and commissioned punishment. It defeats the ethical foundations, and dissociates the abettor and ethicization in the approach of afterlife from the moral agent. Proponents of some Buddhist schools advance that the abstraction of afterlife arete alteration encourages religious giving, and such transfers are not a apparatus to alteration bad afterlife (i.e., demerit) from one actuality to another.

In Hinduism, Sraddha rites during funerals accept been labelled as afterlife arete alteration ceremonies by a few scholars, a affirmation acknowledged by others.[135] Added schools in Hinduism, such as the Yoga and Advaita Vedantic philosophies, and Jainism authority that afterlife can not be transferred.[11][136]
The botheration of evil

There has been an advancing agitation about afterlife approach and how it answers the botheration of angry and accompanying botheration of theodicy. The botheration of angry is a cogent catechism debated in monotheistic religions with two beliefs:[137] (1) There is one God who is actually acceptable and compassionate (omnibenevolent), and (2) That one God knows actually aggregate (omniscient) and is all able (omnipotent). The botheration of angry is again declared in formulations such as, "why does the omnibenevolent, all-seeing and almighty God acquiesce any angry and adversity to abide in the world?" Max Weber continued the botheration of angry to Eastern traditions.[138]

The botheration of evil, in the ambience of karma, has been continued discussed in Eastern traditions, both in all-powerful and non-theistic schools; for example, in Uttara Mīmāṃsā Sutras Book 2 Chapter 1;[139][140] the 8th aeon arguments by Adi Sankara in Brahmasutrabhasya area he posits that God cannot analytic be the account of the apple because there exists moral evil, inequality, animality and adversity in the world;[141][142] and the 11th aeon theodicy altercation by Ramanuja in Sribhasya.[143] Epics such as the Mahabharata, for example, suggests three prevailing theories in age-old India as to why acceptable and angry exists – one actuality that aggregate is advancing by God, addition actuality karma, and a third citation adventitious contest (yadrccha, यदृच्छा).[144][145] The Mahabharata, which includes Hindu celestial Vishnu in the anatomy of Krishna as one of the axial characters in the Epic, debates the attributes and actuality of adversity from these three perspectives, and includes a approach of adversity as arising from an coaction of adventitious contest (such as floods and added contest of nature), diplomacy created by accomplished beastly actions, and the accepted desires, volitions, dharma, adharma and accepted accomplishments (purusakara) of people.[144][146][147] However, while afterlife approach in the Mahabharata presents another perspectives on the botheration of angry and suffering, it offers no absolute answer.[144][148]

Other scholars[149] advance that nontheistic Indian religious traditions do not accept an omnibenevolent creator, and some[150] all-powerful schools do not ascertain or characterize their God(s) as monotheistic Western religions do and the deities accept colorful, circuitous personalities; the Indian deities are claimed and catholic facilitators, and in some schools conceptualized like Plato's Demiurge.[143] Therefore, the botheration of theodicy in abounding schools of above Indian religions is not significant, or at atomic is of a altered attributes than in Western religions.[151] Abounding Indian religions abode greater accent on developing the afterlife assumption for aboriginal account and congenital amends with Man as focus, rather than developing religious attempt with the attributes and admiral of God and all-powerful acumen as focus.[152] Some scholars, decidedly of the Nyaya academy of Hinduism and Sankara in Brahmasutra bhasya, accept posited that afterlife article implies actuality of god, who administers and affects the person's ambiance accustomed that person's karma, but again accede that it makes afterlife as violable, accidental and clumsy to abode the botheration of evil.[153] Arthur Herman states that karma-transmigration approach solves all three actual formulations to the botheration of angry while acknowledging the theodicy insights of Sankara and Ramanuja.[154]

Some all-powerful Indian religions, such as Sikhism, advance angry and adversity are a beastly abnormality and arises from the afterlife of individuals.[155] In added all-powerful schools such as those in Hinduism, decidedly its Nyaya school, afterlife is accumulated with dharma and angry is explained as arising from beastly accomplishments and absorbed that is in battle with dharma.[143] In nontheistic religions such as Buddhism, Jainism and the Mimamsa academy of Hinduism, afterlife approach is acclimated to explain the account of angry as able-bodied as to action audible means to abstain or be artless by angry in the world.[141]

Those schools of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism that await on karma-rebirth approach accept been critiqued for their apostolic account of adversity in accouchement by birth, as the aftereffect of his or her sins in a accomplished life.[156] Others disagree, and accede the appraisal as awry and a confounding of the afterlife theory.[157]
Comparable concepts
Further information: Poetic amends and Mills of God
It Shoots Added Than He Dreams by John F. Knott, March 1918.

Western culture, afflicted by Christianity,[5] holds a angle agnate to karma, as approved in the byword "what goes about comes around".
Christianity

Mary Jo Meadow suggests afterlife is affiliated to "Christian notions of sin and its effects."[158] She states that the Christian teaching on a Last Acumen according to one's alms is a teaching on karma.[158] Christianity additionally teaches behavior such as one reaps what one sows (Galatians 6:7) and alive by the sword, die by the brand (Matthew 26:52).[159] Best scholars, however, accede the abstraction of Last Acumen as altered from karma, with afterlife as an advancing activity that occurs every day in one's life, while Last Judgment, by contrast, is a ancient analysis at the end of life.[160]
Judaism

There is a abstraction in Judaism alleged in Hebrew midah k'neged midah, which actually translates to "value adjoin value," but carries the aforementioned association as the English byword "measure for measure." The abstraction is acclimated not so abundant in affairs of law, but rather, in affairs of ethics, i.e. how one's accomplishments affects the apple will eventually appear aback to that actuality in means one ability not necessarily expect. David Wolpe compared midah k'neged midah to karma.[161]
Psychoanalysis

Jung already opined on changing affections and the synchronicity of karma;

    Aback an close bearings is not fabricated conscious, it appears alfresco as fate.[162]

Popular methods for adverse cerebral antagonism accommodate meditation, metacognition, counselling, psychoanalysis, etc., whose aim is to enhance affecting self-awareness and appropriately abstain abrogating karma. This after-effects in bigger affecting hygiene and bargain karmic impacts.[163] Permanent neuronal changes aural the amygdala and larboard prefrontal case of the beastly academician attributed to abiding brainwork and metacognition techniques accept been accurate scientifically.[164] This activity of affecting maturation aspires to a ambition of Individuation or self-actualisation. Such aiguille adventures are apparently bare of any afterlife (nirvana or moksha).
Theosophy, Spiritism, New Age

The abstraction of afterlife was afflicted in the Western apple through the assignment of the Theosophical Society. In this conception, afterlife was a forerunner to the Neopagan law of acknowledgment or Threefold Law, the abstraction that the benign or adverse furnishings one has on the apple will acknowledgment to oneself. Colloquially this may be summed up as 'what goes about comes around.'

The Theosophist I. K. Taimni wrote, "Karma is annihilation but the Law of Account and Aftereffect operating in the branch of beastly activity and bringing about adjustments amid an alone and added individuals whom he has afflicted by his thoughts, affections and actions."[165] Theosophy additionally teaches that aback bodies reincarnate they appear aback as bodies only, not as animals or added organisms.